The Galdrabok - An Icelandic Grimoire

The „

GALDRABOK

Icelandic

GRIMOIRE

Stephen Flowers

First published in 1989 by

Samuel Weiser, Inc.

Box 612

York Beach, Maine 03910

01 00 99 98 97 96

10 98765432

or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or me-

chanical, including photocopy, without permission in writing from

Samuel Weiser, Inc. Reviewers may quote brief passages.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Flowers, Stephen E., 1953-

The Galdrabok : an Icelandic grimoire / edited, translated,

and introduced by Stephen E. Flowers,

p. cm.

Includes a translation of Galdrabok.

Bibliography: p.

1. Magic, Germanic — Handbooks, manuals, etc. — Early works

to 1800. 2. Mythology, Germanic — Early works to 1800. 3.

Iceland — Religion — Early works to 1800. I. Galdrabdk.

English. 1989.

II. Title.

BF1622.G3F56 1989

133.4'3'094912— dc20 89-14650

ISBN 0-8 7 7 28-685 -X

Cover illustration © Susan Sheppard, 1989

Typeset in 11 point Goudy by

N.K. Graphics, Keene, NH

Printed in the United States of America by

Baker Johnson, Inc. , Ann Arbor, MI

Contents

Abbreviations ix

Acknowledgments xi

Introduction xiii

Part 1

Historical Background

Chapter 1: Historical Context: Politico-Religious

Climate in Iceland 3

Heathen Period (870-1000) 3

Catholic Age (1000-1550) 5

Reformation Age (1550-1650): Iceland at 7

the time of the Galdrabok

Chapter 2: History of Magic in Iceland 11

Heathen Period (870-1000) 11

Catholic Period (1000-1550) 19

Reformation Age (1550-1750) 21

Chapter 3: Icelandic Books of the Black Art 27

The Black Books of Legend 28

Contents

Text of the Galdrabok

Other Historical Manuals of Magic

The Two Traditions in the North

Chapter 4

: The Old Gods and the Demons of Hell

The Heathen Gods and Goddesses

The Demons of Hell

Chapter 5

: Runes and Magical Signs

Chapter 6

: Theory and Practice of Magic

in the Galdrabdk

Part 2

The Galdrabok

The Galdrabok 59

Appendices

Related Spells in Germanic Magic

Appendix A:

Other Icelandic Sources

From the Huld Manuscript

From the Kreddur Manuscript

From Svend Grundtvig’s Collection

From the Collection of Jon Amason

From Various Manuscripts Collected by

Olafur Davidhsson

101

Appendix B:

Heathen Magic in Old English

Manuscripts

105

Contents

Appendix C: Heathen Magic in Old High

German Spells

Contra Vermes

The Merseburg Charms

Notes for Part 1

Notes for Part 2

Bibliography

Abbreviations

Ice.

Icelandic

Old Norse

PGmc.

Proto-Germanic

pi.

plural

sg-

singular

St.

stanza

Acknowledgments

For their help and continuing inspiration during the years in

which knowledge was accumulated to write this work, I wish to

thank Prof. Dr. Edgar Polomdf, Prof. Dr. Klaus Diiwel, Prof. Dr.

John Weinstock, and Robert Zoller.

Introduction

The so-called Galdrabok , 1 or “Book of Magic, ” is the single mos

important document for understanding the practice of magic ir

late medieval Iceland. It is especially important in that it give;

a unique insight into the various religio-magical elements tha

went into a synthetic national magical tradition in Iceland a

the time of its compilation. No other document of comparable

age gives so many details of the preservation of the archaic Ger

manic gods, cosmology, and magical practices as does this little

manuscript. Here we are not dependent on folktales or indirec

reports through confessions exacted by the tortures of the In

quisition or other churchly authorities to reconstruct the magico

religious views of the galdramenn (magicians) of the day; instead

we have direct evidence of actual practices written by the ma

gicians’ own hands. In many ways the Galdrabok is to the Ice

landic folktales of magic 2 what the runic inscriptions are to the

accounts of magic recorded in the sagas. They provide factua

corroboration of what otherwise might have been considered ;

form of fantasy.

In this volume the reader will find not only an annotatec

translation of the complete Galdrabok but also a similar treatmem

xiv Introduction

of selections from other written sources of Germanic magical

practice from all of the Germanic peoples. However, in no region

did the old ways and the old gods and goddesses survive so well

as in Iceland. And because we are focusing on these texts for

what is uniquely Germanic about them, leaving as secondary

what is common to every European tradition, we will concentrate

mainly on Icelandic sources in this study. Our two principal areas

of interest will be the preservation of the old gods and the pres-

ervation of the unique forms of Germanic magical practice in-

herited from the heathen age.

In preparing this work for modem publication, I’ve made

every effort to remain true to the original text of the Galdrabok.

Irregularities in capitalization and spelling are left as in the orig-

inal as they may have special meaning or significance.

HISTORICAL

BACKGROUND

Historical Context:

Politico-Religious Climate in Iceland

T o establish a context for the magic practiced in the

Books of Black Magic that were mainly set down in the

1500s and 1600s, we must look at the various stages oi

religious and political development in Iceland. These periods

are three: the Heathen Age, the Catholic Age, and the Re-

formation Age.

Heathen Period (870-1000)

The generally unpopulated island of Iceland was settled mainly

by Norwegians (along with their Irish and Scottish thralls) who

were seeking political and religious freedom from the onslaught

of the Norwegian king Haraldr hdrfagra (fair-hair), who had set

about to conquer all of Norway and to bring it under a single

Christian-style monarchy.

These new Icelanders set up a form of social order deeply

rooted in their native heritage — a sort of representative or re-

publican aristocracy. There was never a king in Iceland. Rather,

the land was ruled by the local priest-chieftains (ON godhar, sg.

THE GALDRABdK

godhi), who would meet once a year at the Althing (great as-

sembly) , or parliament, to settle legal cases and to pass legislation

for the country. This form of government was minimal in its

exercise of central authority. Courts could decide cases but had

no ability to carry out sentences; that was left up to the kinsmen

of the wronged party. Most often, those who had committed

manslaughter, for example, would be “outlawed”; that is, they

would be declared to be outside the protection of the law, and

they could be killed without legal repercussions to the avengers.

Another principal feature of Germanic law was the idea that the

party wronged was the one to be compensated by the criminal.

The “state” made no profit on crime. For almost every crime a

monetary value was set, so instead of being outlawed a man might

be able to satisfy the wronged party with a payment of some

kind, called weregeld. Each godhi held an authority (ON god-

hordh, which means “authority as a godhi”), which corresponded

roughly to a district. The authority in question was owned by

the godhi and could be sold, inherited, or subdivided. 1

The Icelanders practiced the religion they brought with

them — their age-old polytheistic Germanic heathenism, 2 a re-

ligion that allows for as much individual freedom as did the

Icelandic system of government. One man may worship Odhinn;

another, Thorr; another, Freyja; and yet another may simply

“believe in his own might and main.” Also, there were a number

of Christians among the Irish/Scottish thralls brought to Iceland,

and a few of their masters even converted; but it is said that it

did not last in their families. The point to remember is that the

Icelanders tolerated these differences.

By the year 1000, Ireland, England, Norway, and Denmark

(Iceland’s chief foreign contacts) had all officially become Chris-

tian. It was under a variety of social, economic, and religious

pressures that Christianity was formally accepted as the official

religion at the Althing of 1000. 3

Catholic Age ( 1 000- 1 550)

By all accounts the acceptance of Christianity by the Icelanders

was highly formalistic, marked by little conviction on the part

of even those who voted for it. Public sacrifices to the Germanic

gods were forbidden, but the private practice of the traditional

faith — including the eating of horse flesh and the exposure of

infants — was allowed to continue. Conversion to the Catholic

faith was marked by a gradual transition period lasting several

generations and by an undiminished interest on the part of the

Icelanders in their own traditions. In the earliest phase of this

period many of the godhar simply had themselves ordained as

priests. Others lent their religious duties to other relatives — as

Viking priests somehow appeared unseemly. Also, there were

leiguprestar (hired priests) who were bound to a chieftain like a

thrall.

For the first thirty years or so of this period Iceland must

have remained largely heathen in its practice of religion and

especially of magic. From 1030 to 1118 there reigned in Iceland

what is called the Fridharold — The Age of Peace — in which the

common feuding subsided and a new culture began to take hold

as individual Icelanders examined the new religion. This could

also be characterized as a period of mixed faith in which Chris-

tianity actually began to gain a foothold in the culture as scholars

traveled abroad to learn of the new faith and schools were es-

tablished in Iceland itself. It was toward the end of this time,

around 1100, that Icelandic was first used to write histories, sagas,

and poetry.

There developed in the country a general love of learning

that led some men to join the clergy in order to be educated

abroad and others to enter monasteries for the same scholarly

reasons. Some even established schools on their private estates,

where they worked as scholars and teachers. These traditions of

THE GALDRABOK

learning actually were rooted in the previous age, in which oral

tradition was just as lovingly preserved. It must be remembered

that Iceland was settled in large part by the conservative cultural

aristocracy of Norway, which led to an unusually high level of

interest in national intellectual traditions even in later times.

Today Iceland has the highest literacy rate and the highest per

capita book-publishing rate in the world.

None of these developments appreciably changed the nature

of the church or clergy in Iceland. There was always a strong

secular element in the Icelandic church and a strain of cultural

conservatism that fostered the preservation and continuation of

national traditions in statecraft, religion, and literary culture.

And lest one think that those many Icelanders who joined the

church and the monasteries during this time were forced to reject

worldly pleasures for lives of devoted and pious learning, it should

be mentioned that celibacy was never enforced for the Icelandic

priesthood, and the fact that priests could not legally marry left

the door open for a form of polygamy, or multiconcubinage. The

heathen ways simply went forward.

The Age of Peace began to crack apart in a period of civil

strife, beginning about 1118. At that time the old patterns of

feuding, exacting of blood vengeance, and the like began to

emerge again — with the added elements of political conspiracy

and intrigue involving foreign powers and the offices of the

church. Although elements of this civil strife would continue

for centuries, in 1262 it was sharply curtailed by the intervention

of the Norwegian king. An age of Norwegian dominance lasted

until 1397, when a period of Danish domination began. This

was to last until Iceland was again able to establish complete

independence in 1944, when the Danes were under Nazi occu-

pation.

Despite the domestic strife and foreign exploitation exhib-

ited between the end of the Age of Peace and the beginning of

Historical Context

Danish domination, this period was a sort of golden age of Ice-

landic culture and literature. This was the time when the poems

of the Poetic Edda were committed to parchment, when Snorri

Sturluson wrote the Prose Edda (1222), and when most of the

great sagas were compiled. Icelanders had become comfortable

with their “National Catholicism,” which had allowed indige-

nous traditions to survive and native “saints” (some official, some

not) to be revered. But foreign domination was to prove a danger

to this cultural balance of the past and present. 4

Reformation Age ( 1 550- 1 650) :

Iceland at the Time of the Galdrabok

It was with the background of the heathen and Catholic past

that the magic contained in the Galdrabdk and related manu-

scripts was practiced. But it was during this period of religious

strife and ultimately of religious persecution that the work was

actually committed to parchment.

The Protestant Reformation, of course, began with Martin

Luther in Germany around 1517. It quickly spread in northern

Europe, where the secular authorities especially had long har-

bored a cultural animosity for the domination of Rome. In 1536

the Reformation was officially accepted in Denmark, and hence

its possession, Iceland, was also destined to follow that course.

Because of Iceland’s continued isolation and intrinsic conser-

vatism the Reformation did not come easily to the island.

Sources of the Reformation in Iceland were two: the foreign

forces of the Dano-Norwegian crown and the domestic church-

men who had become convinced of Luther’s doctrines while

studying abroad. One of the reasons the crowned heads found

Protestantism so attractive is that it allowed the kings to na-

tionalize, and in effect to confiscate, the wealth and properties

THE GALDRABOK

of the Catholic church in their respective countries. Resistance

to the Reformation came from the conservative populace and,

of course, from the Catholic clergy. From 1536 to 1550 there

was in effect a low- intensity religious war in Iceland. The forces

of Protestantism and the crown finally won with the execution

of Bishop Jon Arason in 1550. But this marked only the begin-

ning of any Reformation at the popular level. It would take a

full century, until around 1650, before Protestantism could really

be considered fully accepted by the population at large.

This period of “popular Reformation” was marked by in-

creasing exploitation on the economic front and by increasing

Danish domination in politics. In 1602 Denmark established a

trade monopoly over Iceland so that the island could no longer

trade freely with whomever it pleased, resulting in a time of

economic hardship often reflected in the folktales of the period.

The powerful Danish tradesmen and the Protestant churchmen

(who were virtually the agents of the Danish crown) ruthlessly

exploited and oppressed the populace. One fourth of the tithe

paid to the church and the fines imposed by the courts went

directly to the king of Denmark. The laws of the country were

changed to impose the death penalty for moral crimes such as

heresy (aimed against the “un-Reformed”) and adultery. Of

course, this net would eventually be widened to include “witch-

craft.” Again all or part of the estate of anyone convicted of

these, as well as long-established or legitimate, crimes went to

the crown. Such measures were especially harsh on the popu-

lation because until this time the old Germanic-heathen legal

codes, which provided first and foremost for the compensation

of the victims of crimes (not the state or king) , were still largely

in place on the island.

Throughout the 1600s the country was spiraling downward

into general economic and political decay. From our historical

perspective, however, the age was not without its benefits. The

scholarly humanism that developed to some extent in Iceland

but especially in Denmark gave rise to a concerted effort by

scholars to save the Icelandic literary heritage. It was probably

as a part of this process that the manuscript of the Galdrabok was

brought to Denmark. In fact, like the economic wealth of the

nation, its cultural wealth was also syphoned off to Copenhagen.

Now the manuscripts collected at that time are being repatriated,

and, ironically, they were probably saved by Danish scholars from

the cultural and material ravages wreaked by Danish tradesmen

and other agents of the crown. Many of the manuscripts that

were not collected by the Danes were eaten in times of famine

or, for want of other materials, were used to make clothing.

CHAPTER

History of Magic in Iceland

■ wf / e are unusually well informed on all aspects of th<

M/Wf practice of magic by the Icelanders. Much more thar

7 W any other nonclassical (i.e., non-Greco-Roman) Eu

ropean people, the Icelanders have left behind a clear record o

their magical beliefs and practices and have given us clear idea;

of the contexts in which this magic was practiced. We not onb

have original heathen sources (in the Poetic Edda and skaldic

poetry) but also clear reflections of pre-Christian practices sei

down in the saga literature. The sagas are prose works — semi-

historical yet embellished tales — written down for the most pari

between 1120 and 1400. These, however, usually reflect event;

and beliefs of the Viking Age (about 800-1100). 1

Heathen Period (870-1000)

Sagas regularly feature works of magic and give us vivid pictures

of the lives of several magicians. 2 The most famous of these is

the Egil's Saga, which is essentially a biography of Egill Skalla-

grimsson (910-990), an Icelandic skaldic poet, runic magician,

THE GALDRABOK

and worshipper of Odhinn. Beyond such sources, we have, of

course, the rare finds of actual grimoires such as the Galdrabok

represents. Such works, along with runic inscriptions, legal rec-

ords, and the like form correlation to the “literary” material and

fill in some of the gaps left by the sagas and poems.

The early period of Icelandic magic is divided into essentially

two phases: heathen and Catholic. The later Reformation, or

Protestant, period changed the picture considerably. It was in

the Protestant age that the manuscripts of most of the galdrabaekur

were created. However, to even begin to understand the magical

world view of the compilers of these books, we must understand

well the cosmos of the Germanic heathen past in which their

ideas were rooted.

It should be clear from the discussion above, concerning

the history and character of the church during the Catholic

period, how and why we are able to use documents actually

written down at that time as reliable sources for the heathen

practice of magic. The Catholic period is really more an age of

synthesis than a radical departure from the past as far as magic,

as well as culture in general, is concerned.

By all internal accounts, in the heathen age there seem to

have been two kinds of magic prevalent: galdur 3 and seidh(r).

Although these later appear to have taken on some moral con-

notations — the galdur form being more “honorable” and the seidh

form widely considered “shameful” or “womanish” — in reality

there seem to have been originally only certain technical (and

perhaps social) distinctions between the two. Icelandic galdur is

derived from the verb gala (to crow, chant ) 4 and is therefore

dominated by the use of the incantational formula that is to be

spoken or sung and perhaps also carved in runes. The original

meaning of seidh may also have something to do with vocal

performance (i.e., singing or chanting), although the exact orig-

inal meaning of the word is unclear . 5 What is relatively clear is

the procedural and psychological distinctions between these twc

History of Magic in Iceland

techniques. The practice of galdur seems to be more analyt-

ical, conscious, willed, and ego-oriented, whereas seidh appears

more intuitive and synthetic. Typical of galdur would be the

assumption of a “magical persona” or alter ego for working

the will, whereas in seidh a trance state would be induced in

which the ego would be of relatively less importance. It might

also be said that seidh is closer to what might be understood as

shamanic practice. 6 I hasten to point out that these are really

two tendencies in the pagan magic (real though they are), and

the “moral” distinction is a later development. Odhinn is said

to be the “father” of galdur and its natural master, but it is

believed that he learned the arts of seidh from the Vanic god-

dess Freyja. 7

It is also tempting to say that seidh is more based on “natural”

methods of working magic (especially with animal and vegetable

substances), whereas galdur is more based on linguistic/symbolic

ways of working (with combinations of verbal formulas and

graphic signs). Our texts show that the basic techniques and

terminology of galdur survived relatively more intact than did

those of seidh. This is perhaps because of the relatively simple

technique of working galdur. In the practice of galdur the magical

work seems more heavily dependent on the powers of the ma-

gician himself.

One traditional area of Germanic magic from which the

galdur of our texts inherits many of its methods is that of rune

magic. The runes (Ice. ritnar or runir) constitute a writing system

used by the Germanic peoples from perhaps as early as 200 b.c.e.

to the early 19th century in some remote areas of Scandinavia. 8

These runes, or rune staves (Ice. rtinstafir) as they were often

called, seem to have been used exclusively for nonprofane pur-

poses from their beginnings to the Scandinavian Middle Ages

(beginning about 1100 c.e.) The word run in Icelandic signifies

not only one of these “staves” used in writing but also, and more

originally, the idea of “secret,” or “secret lore.”

THE GALDRABOK

Table 1: The Older Rune-row

Number

Shape

Phonetic

Value

Name

Meaning of Name

* fehu

livestock, wealth

*uruz

aurochs

’ thurisaz

giant

* ansuz

the god

* raidhd

riding

‘ kaunaz

sore

*gebd

gift

‘ wunjo

joy

‘hagalaz

hail

‘nauthiz

need

*Isa

ice

* jera

year (harvest)

* eihwaz

yew

‘per thro

dice box (?)

-z

* elhaz

elk

* sowilo

sun

* teiwaz

the god Tyr

‘berkand

birch (-goddess)

‘ ehuiaz

horse

* mannaz

man

"laguz

water

’ ingica;:

the god Ing

‘dagaz

day

* othala

ancestral estate

'Indicates a reconstructed Proto-Germanic form.

History of Magic in Iceland

From the origins of the tradition to about 800 c.e. the older

system of twenty-four runes prevailed (Table 1). This system was

subsequently reformed in an orderly and uniform fashion through-

out Scandinavia. But as some formulas in our late texts show,

the magical value of the number 24 seems to have continued.

In the so-called Viking Age (from about 800 to 1100) the

last heathen codification of the runes took place. It was from

this period that many of the pre-Christian aspects of magical

practice found in our galdrabsekur seem to have grown. During

the Viking Age the rune staves were reduced to sixteen in num-

ber. As in earlier times, each rune had a name as well as its

phonetic value (usually indicated by the first sound in its name.)

There were also interpretative poetic stanzas connected to each

rune. 9 These are of special interest since they were at least re-

corded in Iceland and Norway in the 1400s and 1500s — a time

very close to that when our earliest magical texts were being

compiled. Therefore, we can speculate that the gaidramenn (ma-

gicians) might have had some detailed knowledge of the esoteric

lore of heathen runology. Many of them were certainly literate

in runes. The system of the Viking Age runes, as it would have

been known to the Icelanders, is shown in Table 2 on page 16.

This table has several things to teach us directly about the

significance of what we will encounter in the spells found in the

galdrabxkur. First of all, the number 16 is often found underlying

the composition of the stave forms in the spells. They are usually

not actual rune staves, but they do reflect the formulaic signif-

icance of the number 16. Also, the old rune names show up not

only in the spells — where they apparently signify the runes they

name (e.g. , see Spell 46 in Part 2) — but also in the curious

names of the “magical signs” (Ice. galdrastafir) themselves, such

as hagall.

In pagan times the runic magicians were well-known and

honored members of society. Traditionally, runelore had been

THE GALDRABOK

Table 2: The Younger Rune-row

Phonetic

Number Shape Value Name

Meaning of Name

money, gold,

livestock

aurochs (or drizzle/

slag)

giant

the god (or estuary)

a riding

sore, ulcer

“hail” (special runic

name)

need, distress

ice

good year, harvest

sun

(the god) Tyr

birch (goddess)

yew (bow)

the preserve of members of the established social order interested

in intellectual or spiritual pursuits. For the most part, these men

were followers of the god Odhinn, the Germanic god of magic,

ecstasy, poetry, and death. 10 It is also worth noting that men

were more often engaged in runic magic than were women — a

social phenomenon that is reflected in the later statistics of the

witchcraft trials in Iceland.

History of Magic in Iceland

The general technique of rune magic in pagan times con-

sisted of three procedural steps performed by a qualified runt

magician: (1) carving the staves into an object, (2) coloring

them with blood or dye, and (3) speaking a vocal formula ovei

the staves to load them with magical power. 11 This direct tech-

nique, which is not dependent on the objective intervention oi

gods or demons, will later be in continued evidence in the

galdrabsekur. It clearly shows the continuation of a practice frorr

early Germanic times right up to the modem age.

Several examples from old Icelandic literature will show this

kind of magic at work. One of the most interesting examples foi

our purposes is found in the Poetic Edda in the lay called, alter-

natively, “For Skfrnis” or the “Skimismal” (st. 36). This poetr

probably dates from the early tenth century. Here the messengei

of the god Freyr, named Skimir, is trying to force the beautiful

giantess (et in- wife) to love his lord, Freyr. Skimir threatens hei

with a curse:

A thurs'rurxe I for thee,

and three of them I scratch —

lechery and loathing and lust;

off I shall scrape them

as on I did scratch them

if of none there be need. 12

The basic motivation and stance of the runic magician, a:

well as technical aspects such as the enumeration of the staves

and the actual style of the incantation, will be found in latei

spells.

Another famous example that clearly shows rune-magica

techniques is one in the Egil’s Saga (chap. 44). In order to deteci

poison in his drinking horn, Egill drew out his knife and stabbec

the palm of his hand. Then he took the horn, carved runes or

it, and rubbed blood on them. He said:

THE GALDRABOK

I carve a rune on the horn

I redden the spell in blood

these words I choose for your ears . . ,

The horn burst asunder, and the drink went down into the

straw. 13

Besides runic magic, but often in conjunction with it, we

find magic worked in pre-Christian times with certain holy or

otherwise powerful natural substances. There must have been a

whole magical classification system of sacred woods only dimly

reflected in the galdrabaekur. In any event, the woods of various

trees played a special part in the Germanic magical technology

as well as its mythology. The world is said to be constructed

around the framework of a tree — Yggdrasill (the World-Tree).

Humankind is said to have been shaped by a threefold aspect of

Odhinn from trees: the man from the ash and the woman from

the elm (embla?).

Another substance of extreme importance is blood. The

runes were often reddened with it, and it was generally thought

to have intrinsic magical powers, especially when it was either

human or that of a sacrificial animal. In many pre-Christian

sacrificial rites the blood of the animal was sprinkled onto the

altar, temple walls, and even the gathered folk, all of which were

said to be hallowed by this contact. 14 The etymology of the

English verb “to bless” reflects this heathen practice as it is

ultimately derived from a Proto-Germanic form *bldthisdjan (to

hallow with blood; PGmc. * bldtham , blood).

Other than woods of trees, herbal substances were also

widely used in pre-Christian magical practice. Especially prev-

alent were forms of the leek (Ice. laukur), the name of which

commonly occurs as a magical runic formula even as early as

450 c.e. 15 It is also noteworthy that several herbs bear the names

of Norse gods or goddesses, for example, Icelandic friggjargras

History of Magic in Iceland

1 <

(Frigg’s herb: orchis odoratissima or satyrium albidium ) and bal

dursbrd (Baldur’s brow: cotula foetida or pyethrum inodorum, o:

perhaps eye-bright).

Additionally, certain small stones, called in Icelandic lyf

steinar (herb-magical healing stones), are thought to have power:

to heal disease magically. These were sometimes even carvec

with runes or other signs.

Catholic Period (1000-1550)

The latter part of the age just before the time when the gald-

rabazkur began to be set down is called the Catholic period. A:

will be remembered from our discussion of the politico-religiou:

history of Iceland, a peculiar kind of Catholic Christian church

existed in Iceland from 1000 to the middle of the 1500s. In al

facets of life this represented a period of mixed faith in which

elements of the ancient native heritage and the new foreign

religion were being syncretized.

Heathen elements in the magical tradition would naturally

be diminished both as new material was introduced and as knowl-

edge of the technical aspects of the pagan tradition began to fade

through neglect and lack of the old establishment support. Never-

theless, the old material and techniques must have continued in

a real way for many generations. In a way this is a “dark age’

for our knowledge of the actual practice of magic in Iceland

because the works composed at this time depicted the Viking

Age practices, and we have no actual galdrabaekur from the period

itself.

From what we have in the Reformation Age, it is possible

to speculate that the heathen tradition was kept alive on its own

terms for a long time but eventually was syncretized with the

Christian tradition. It must, however, be understood that prac-

THE GALDRABdK

ticing magic at all was considered by orthodox forces to be he-

retical and somewhat diabolical. (That is why there is an active,

explicit merger of the old gods and the demons of hell. See

chapter 4.)

The influence of the foreign Christian tradition seems tc

have been most keenly felt in new elements introduced in the

formulas. These would include personalities from explicitly

Judeo-Christian mythology (e.g. , Solomon, Jesus, Mary). Be-

yond these personalities certain formulas must have been incor-

porated at this time: the use of the trinity, formulas of benediction

peculiar to the Catholic church, and so on. Other elements,

such as Judeo-Gnostic formulas (e.g., Jehova Sebaoth [Yahweb

Tzabaoth], Tetragrammaton) must have come directly from mag-

ical books imported from the Continent at this time. As far as

the actual methods of working magic are concerned, there musi

have been a relative shift in emphasis to the prayer formula, in

which the magician bids for the intercession of some supernatural

entity on his behalf. Although this was probably known in some

form in the heathen age, it had limited application; whereas ii

predominates in the Judeo-Christian tradition.

The information we have about magicians and magic of this

period is very indirect. Although many texts were composed ir

this period, they mostly harked back to the heathen age wher

magic came into play. The later folktales, mostly collected ir

the 1700s and 1800s tell of two famous magicians of this age :

however. One was Saemundur Sigfusson the Wise (1056-1133).

who was the godhi (priest-chieftain) of Oddi. He is reputed tc

have been the most learned man of his time, but all of his writing:

are now lost. Further, he was said to have acquired magica

knowledge as a captive of the Black School of Satan. This legenc

may be due to the fact that he studied Latin and theology ir

France. Saemundur has the reputation, despite the origins of hi:

knowledge, of being a “good” magician. It seems that the rep

History of Magic in Iceland

utation for “white” or “black” magic that the historical magicians

acquired was due more to literary stereotyping and regional con-

flicts than to any historical or practical facts. Saemundur’s sister

Haifa also “practiced the old heathen lore,” as one text describing

her puts it, although the writer feels obliged to add that she was

“nevertheless ... a very religious woman.” 16

Reformation Age (1550-1750)

With the advent of Protestantism in Iceland, beginning about

1536, a radical new situation began to prevail. As learning de-

creased in quality and persecutions of magic increased in inten-

sity, elements of Icelandic magic already in place began to reach

knowledge and practice as far as the establishment was con-

cerned, so it therefore became more wrapped up in the mixture

of previously rejected heathenism.

At the close of the Catholic period there were two contem-

porary Icelandic magicians with very different reputations. Gott-

skalk Niklasson the Cruel (bishop of Holar from 1497 to 1520)

had a reputation as an evil magician. He was the compiler of

the fabled Raudhskinni book of magic discussed in chapter 3.

Gottskalk is well known in Icelandic history otherwise as a ruth-

less political schemer who conspired against secular political fig-

ures for his own selfish ends. 17 This as much as anything else

probably led to his reputation in the folk tradition. An approx-

imate contemporary of Gottskalk was Halfdanur Narfason (died

1568), vicar of Fell in Gottskalk’s diocese of Holar. Little is

known of Halfdanur’s life, but there is a rich body of folktales

concerning him. 18 He seems to have been the legendary “white”

counterpoint to the “black” Bishop Gottskalk.

Halfdanur and Gottskalk form a kind of bridge between the

Catholic and Reformation ages in the history of Icelandic magic.

THE GALDRABOfC

Deep into the Protestant period we again have a pair of strongl'

contrasted magician figures: Eirikur of Vogsosar and Galdra

Loptur. Eirikur, who was a quiet and pious vicar, lived from 163'

to 1716. He is little known in history but shares with Saemundu

the reputation of a practitioner of good magic, wholly derivet

from godly sources — although he was not above practicing th<

most dreaded arts {e.g. , necromancy) for “pedagogical purposes.'

Here I refer to one of the most telling anecdotes in the histor

of Icelandic magic, one that emphasizes the character and leve

of humor necessary to practice magic:

Two boys once came to Eirikur the priest and asked him t<

show them how he would set about raising ghosts. He told then

to come with him to the churchyard, and they did. He mutterei

something between his teeth, and the earth began gushing u]

out of a grave. The boys reacted differently; one laughed, an<

the other burst into tears. Eirikur said to the latter: “Go hom

again, my good fellow, and thank God you did not go out c

your mind. As for this other boy, it would be a pleasure to teacl

him.” 19

This might be compared with an episode involving Galdra

Loptur (Loptur the Magician) that is supposed to be one of hi

most depraved acts — raising the draugur (ghost) of Bishop Gotts

kalk in order to recover his famous “black book,” Raudhs/dnni

Little is known of the historical Loptur, but we do know tha

he was a scholar at the school at Holar and that he died in 1722

In Galdra-Loptur we have a kind of Icelandic Faust, whose majc

sin is his insatiable desire for more knowledge and power. 20

The use of folktales to trace the history of magic is a risk

task. They really tell us more about the changing attitudes c

the folk toward magic and other human motivations than aboc

the actual practices of any given time. However, in this area £

in so many others, Iceland provides remarkable technical detail

and often surprisingly value-free renditions of events — eve

History of Magic in Iceland

though the teller of the tale may feel the need to commenl

negatively or positively as an aside. When we look over the

whole body of Icelandic folktales dealing with magic we see

certain trends. For example, men of high rank are rarely chided

with charges of black magic, even though their reported practices

seem little different from those against whom the charge was

leveled.

In the early phase of the Christian period, heathen lore was

looked upon with some ambivalence, and the Christian Devil

was hardly understood. It seemed to be a moral watershed as to

the source of a magician’s knowledge and power — of the Chris-

tian God or of some other source (i.e., heathen/diabolical).

Later, especially in the Protestant period, all magic was looked

upon with suspicion — all wizards were “gray” at best. This at-

titude in the folktales is perhaps most eloquently symbolized in

the Galdrabok in those spells in which the old gods are equated

with infernal demons and Valholl is somehow equated with hell.

Because of Iceland’s peculiar church organization in the

Catholic period and the general isolation of the country from

Continental affairs, the practice of magic was not officially per-

secuted or prosecuted during that time. The Inquisition became

active on the Continent following Pope Innocent Ill’s bull of

1199. That was mainly directed against organized heretics, but

its circle gradually widened to include sorcery even when heresy

was not involved (in a bull by Pope Nicholas V in 1451). But

even this failed to penetrate the dark mists of Thule. In large

measure this phenomenon is probably due to the fact that it was

clergymen themselves who were most actively engaged in sorcery

in Iceland!

The Protestants on the Continent were no less severe in

dealing with witchcraft than the Inquisition had been, and in

many cases they were more devastating in that their focus on

individuals and small groups made more indiscriminate perse-

THE GALDRAB6K

cutions easier. It was under cover of the Reformation that witch’

craft persecutions came to Iceland. These persecutions nevei

reached the genocidal levels known on the Continent, where

hundreds of thousands were executed, but they are nevertheles;

historically significant.

The first trial for witchcraft in Iceland is recorded in 1554-

the last at the Althing of 1720. Records were poorly kept in thi;

period; however, it is estimated that during this time some 35C

trials were held, although records for only 125 survive. Of these

125 accused persons only 9 were women. 21 This is in markec

contrast to the general pattern of witchcraft accusations anc

certainly suggests something of the demographics of magical prac-

tice in Iceland. This is generally a reflection of long-standing

Germanic tradition, in which men were at least the equal o:

women in the occult arts. We have records for only twenty-sb

executions (mostly by burning) for witchcraft. Only one womar

was actually executed. Others who were convicted of this crime,

but whose sentence was short of death, were flogged or outlawec

(in effect banished from the country).

The period of most intensive witchcraft persecutions i:

clearly marked between the first execution in 1625 and the Iasi

in 1685. However, it is worth pointing out that during this time

Iceland suffered generally under a moral code of extremely harsf

laws, which provided for capital punishment for a wide variety

of crimes — murder, incest, adultery, theft — as well as witchcraft.

Also, finding rune staves carved on a stick or written on parch-

ment was evidence sufficient to convict someone of witchcraft.

All of this is a far cry from the saga age when great men knew

the runes and the Althing could not impose the death penalty

Finally, it is noteworthy that although it was not necessarily tht

poorest or most ignorant folk who were accused of sorcery, the

rich, powerful, or scholarly (who were in historical retrospeci

the chief practitioners) were largely immune.

History of Magic in Iceland

As to the kinds of magic practiced in this period, we have

direct evidence in the form of the Galdrabok itself, which was

compiled over a period between about 1550 and 1680, including

many years of the persecutions. Here we are not dependent on

secondhand descriptions but have the practical manual itself as

it was used by actual magicians. The same can be said for the

other, later material recorded in Appendices A and B. The re-

maining chapters treat the various aspects of magic as practiced

in the Galdrabok.

In the 1550-1680 period Iceland developed a national syn-

thesis of magic that was worked by members of the highest levels

of its society. But it is perhaps because of the relative lack of a

strict set of socioeconomic and educational class distinctions in

Iceland at the time and afterward that the synthesis survived as

long as it did. Even today Icelanders are noted for their partic-

ularly strong beliefs in occult matters 22 and their unabashed pride

in their heathen past. 23

THREE

Icelandic Books of the Black Art

K besides the Galdrabok, which is the focus of our study

m m here, the apparently once rich textual tradition of Ice-

M i J landic magic is in fragments and shreds. The folktales

of Iceland report on the existence of famous books of the black

arts owned by notorious magicians of history and housed in re-

nowned schools where magic was practiced. These kinds of books

were also reported in more reliable historical sources, some oi

which even contain summaries of their contents. Otherwise we

are dependent on later collections and on stray references in

manuscripts whose contents are generally other than that oi

galdur. Some of the later books containing spells are profiled in

Appendix A.

In legend, the earliest of the famous Icelandic magicians oi

the Christian period, Bishop Saemundur the Wise, is said to have

learned the arts of magic at a mysterious Black School of Satan

somewhere on the Continent, perhaps in Germany or France . 1

But in later times the two cathedral schools of Iceland at Holai

(in the north) and Skalholt (in the southwest) were the hotbeds

of magical activity. As noted before, the legendary material alsc

tends to divide the master magicians into two main types: be-

THE GA1DRAB6K

neficent and malificent. Ssemundur the Wise is the model of

goodness, and Gottskalk the Cruel is the archetype of evil. It is

curious, however, that their sources of magical lore are the same

(as often from Satan or Odhinn as from the Christian God); and

in the books that have survived, all kinds of magic are merrily

mixed together. It seems that to the magician himself (not nec-

essarily to the nonmagicians who might sit in judgment of him)

magic is a neutral thing that can be used in causes just and

unjust.

The Black Books of Legend

There are two main texts of legendary importance in the history

of Icelandic books of the black arts. It is impossible to tell where

legend ends and history begins with these accounts, but one

thing that is borne out by hard evidence is the importance of

such books and the nature of their contents.

The most famous and sinister of all of these books was

Raudhskinni (Red Leather), which was said to have been compiled

by the most evil of all magicians, Bishop Gottskalk Niklasson

the Cruel, Bishop of Holar from 1497 to 1520. Raudhskinni is

said to be a book of the blackest magic, drawn from the heathen

age. It was supposed to have been written with golden letters on

red parchment (hence, the name “Red Leather’’). It is also said

to have been written in runes. 2 Gottskalk is reported to have

been buried with the Raudhskinni, and it is further said that he

did not teach all of the magic compiled in the book. Therefore,

the text was assumed to be of enormous secret power. Some two

hundred years after Gottskalk’s death there was said to be a

scholar at the school of H6lar named Loptur, or Galdra-Loptur.

Loptur wished to gain the knowledge contained in Raudhskinni,

so he set about to raise the dead Gottskalk and force him to give

Icelandic Books of the Black Art

2 <

up the book. Loptur was unsuccessful, however, and was lefi

shattered by the encounter with the powerful ghost of Gottskalk. ;

Another famous magical book of semilegend was Grdskinn

(Gray Leather). There were perhaps at one time two books by

this name, one at Holar and one at Skalholt, both origin alb

compiled from the same source. The description of this book is

interesting in that the text is supposed to have consisted of twc

parts, the first part written in normal letters (i.e., in the Romar

alphabet) and containing information on lesser magical arts, foi

example, gUmugaldur (wrestling magic) and lofalist (palmistry).

The souls of those who read just the first part could still be saved,

but those who read the second part of Grdskinni were damned.

This second part was said to be written in villurunir (erring runes,

i.e., coded runes designed to conceal their actual meanings).

These were black magical spells the magician Galdra-Loptur had

mastered. 4

Of course, these books may never have actually existed, but

certainly ones with contents like those described in folktales did

exist. In fact, our Galdrabok is a surviving example. We do not

need to repeat what the usual fate of such books was once they

were discovered by the establishment authorities. However, it is

useful to recall that there was an active campaign against such

books for centuries, and given that circumstance it is remarkable

that the Galdrabok was able to survive.

Text of the Galdrabok

The original manuscript of this collection of black magical spells

was written in Iceland beginning sometime during the latter part

of the 1500s. It is therefore a product of the Reformation Age.

The manuscript does not represent a comprehensive composi-

tion, but rather it is a collection of spells, more or less randomly

THE GALDRABOK

pieced together. 5 As we have the book now, it has been addet

to by four scribes working over a period of as long as a hundrec

years.

The first magician, working in Iceland during the latter hal

of the sixteenth century, wrote down spells 1-10. Soon thereaftei

it was passed on to another Icelander, who added spells 11—39

Perhaps sometime later a third Icelandic scribe came into pos-

session of the book and added spells 40-44. This latter galdra-

madhur wrote in the cursive style of the 17th century. What 1:

remarkable about his work is that it contains such a rich store

of references to the older gods and to Germanic lore — and thi:

was around 1650, more than half a millennium after that fatefu

Althing of the year 1000! Not long after this third scribe hac

added his spells, the book was taken to Denmark, where it came

into the hands of a Danish magician who wrote in spells begin

ning with the last section of 44 through 47. This Dane musi

have also had the use of other Icelandic books of magic, nov

lost, from which he collected these spells.

In 1682 the book was acquired by the Danish philologis

J. G. Sparfvenfelt and was later acquired by the Swedes (some-

time between 1689 and 1694) for their great collection o

“Gothic” monuments and manuscripts. Eventually it found it:

way into the Academy of Sciences (State Historical Museum’

in Stockholm, where it is now.

A survey of the contents of the manuscript reveals somf

interesting tendencies. There are essentially two kinds of magic

worked here. One works by means of a prayer formula in whicl

higher powers are invoked and by which the magical end i

effected indirectly. This is the case only with a minority (a tota

of eight) of the spells in the Galdrabok. Far more common art

the spells that work as direct expressions of the magician’s will

This will is expressed through signs, or through written or spoker

formulas. Often these methods are combined so that the overal

Icelandic Books of the Black Art

ritual formula is very similar to the kind practiced in ancient

times and reported of Egill Skallagrfmsson, for example. There

are a total of twenty-three spells using galdrastafir, while eight

make use of spoken or written spells. Two, 33 and 45, make use

of formulas that mix the prayers with the use of galdrastafir. Three

spells employ neither prayer nor signs but rather make use of

natural substances that are supposed to work a magical effect.

This is the kind of natural magic most often found in the “leech-

books,” or physicians’ manuals.

The religious outlook expressed in the spells is also of central

interest. A full twenty-one of the spells have a predominantly

non-Christian or overtly heathen (or even diabolical) viewpoint.

This is not unexpected, as the whole practice of magic had been

associated with the heathen past and with demonic sources from

the time of the introduction of Christianity. In spite of this,

there are some nine spells that have a “purely Christian” outlook

in that they overtly cite Christian figures or use Christian for-

mulas. There are also eight spells that demonstrate Judeo-Gnostic

roots: 5, 10, 11, 12, 31, 37, 39, and 42. These often make use

of Judaic or Greco-Gnostic formulas but cannot be classified as

Christian. They were, no doubt, borrowed from the Continental

tradition along with the overtly Christian formulas. Addition-

ally, there are five highly curious spells that mix overtly Germanic

pagan contents with overtly Christian contents. It is worth not-

ing that four of these were added by the last two scribes. This

might indicate that the pagan and especially the Catholic-

Christian formulas were receding further into the category of

rejected knowledge and were thus increasingly becoming can-

didates for use in magical formulas.

There are roughly six different magical motivations ex-

pressed in the spells of the Galdrabdk. By far the most common

are apotropaic, or protective, formulas, of which there are no

less than eighteen. Besides these spells, which are constructed

THE GALDRABdK

so as to protect the magician from some active harm (e.g., troll-

shot or the wrath of powerful men), there is a group of nine

generally beneficent spells designed to bring the magician good

fortune or beneficial circumstances. An overriding concern of

the magicians who compiled this book was the discovery of

thieves. There is a total of six such spells. These are curious in

that they are spells for the acquisition of some form of clairvoy-

ance or magical knowledge (Ice. kunndtta; see Spell 44) by which

the magician will be able to “see” an image of the man who stole

from him. The last spell (47) is a formula for invisibility.

Besides these protective and otherwise passive formulas,

there is a sizable group of spells devoted to more aggressive forms

of magic. These are ten in number, of which four or so are among

the most mischievous yet recorded in the annals of sorcery. If

Icelandic magicians went around casting these spells, it is no

wonder they spent so much time and effort worrying about the

“wrath of powerful men.”

Other Historical Manuals of Magic

Of course, besides the Galdrabok no coherent and archaic book

of its kind exists anymore. But there are a number of books that

contain various amounts of interesting lore. One of the main

problems in research in this area is that the sources have not

been collected, and/or convenient editions of them have not

been made.

There are historical records of books from the 17th century

that give us some idea of their basic contents. The magical books

of Pastor J6n the Learned (1574-1650?) fell into the hands of

Pastor Gudhmundur Einarsson of Stadharstadhur in 1625.

Gudhmundur used these books to write a tract against the prac-

Icelandic Books of the Black Art

3 ;

tice of magic in 1627. 6 Jon was said to be a learned but super

stitious man who spread the lore of magic in the form of kreddur

or superstitious beliefs. We know from secondary citations of thi

now lost tract by Gudhmundur that Jon’s books contained spell

using the sator-square 7 and “runes” connected with biblical pas

sages (mostly from the Psalms). Gudhmundur, who was at pain

to connect this lore with the worship of Satan, ventured at

interpretation of the sator-square as a scrambling of the senteno

Satan operor te, operor te Satan. This he translates as “Satan I an

in thy work, I am in thy toil.” 8 As a result of this publicity ant

the efforts of Gudhmundur, Jon was condemned for witchcraf

at the Althing of 1631 but was not executed.

There also exists a detailed catalog of the contents of :

galdrabok found by the schoolmaster of Skalholt in the bed o

two students in the year 1664. 9 The schoolmaster handed it ove

to Bishop Brynjulfur Sveinsson, who made a listing of its con

tents. The book itself was most certainly burned, but the student

were spared the same fate. They were not even tried, but the

were expelled from the school and exiled to England. One o

them returned after some years.

The descriptive list made by Brynjulfur contains eight

items. Here are translations of some of those that are most in

teresting for our purposes. No. 14: “To wrestle in a differen

way, with carvings and the drawing of blood. Additionally [foui

signs: hedge-hog tooth, ginfaxi, hagall, and satrix. ” No. 2C

Aegishjalmur (helm of awe). No. 24: “Conjuration for a fox. Her

Th6rr and Odhinn are invoked, with twenty-three signs.” No

26: “Conjuration for a mouse, with a human rib — the Devil i

invoked in complete trust in Thorr and Odhinn with the verse

sator arepo, etc.” No. 27: “To give someone the sleep-thorn

with the drawing of blood and two signs.” No. 29: “To mak

someone sleepless, with a cursing verse and one sign. Addition

THE GALDRAB6K

ally the Devil is called upon as well as twelve arch-devils by the

power of Lucifer.” No. 39: “To find out who stole from someone,

with two signs hagall inn minni [hagall the lesser].” No. 74: “Sc

that a troll of utburdhur [the ghost of an unbaptized baby] will

not drive someone mad, with four signs.” No. 77: “To carve the

sleep-thorn for someone.” No. 80: “Against theft: conjuring

hrmthurs [rime giant] and grimthurs [cruel giant] and the Fathei

of all Trolls [Odhinn] with twenty-nine signs.” The contents oi

this list may be compared beneficially with the contents of the

Galdrabok and with the later collections found in the appendixes

of this book.

At least one old Icelandic leechbook (physicians’ manual)

from the late 1400s contains several leaves at the beginning that

are more magical than the average contents of the book. 10 These

contain some of the oldest representations of the segishjdlmur anc

similar signs, as well as prayer formulas in which the old gods

(i.e., Odhinn [also as Fjolnir], Thorr, Frigg, and Freyja) are

mixed with Judeo-Christian figures.

The other Icelandic sources treated extensively in Appendix

A are collections made in the 1800s. Their contents usually gc

back to the 1700s, and their substance, as can be seen directly,

goes right back to the medieval period and beyond. The readei

is advised to see the introductory material in Appendix A foi

the historical details of these collections.

Besides the Icelandic material, which is the core of this

study, I have also appended material from other Germanic areas.

Appendix B has a selection from an Old English leechbook thai

gives an insight into a different traditional mix but nevertheles:

often retains much of the more archaic underlying Germanic

lore. Finally, Appendix C has the most famous spells in the

history of Germanic magic, which are from the Continenta

German tradition and which have important Indo-European par-

allels.

Icelandic Books of the Black Art

The Two Traditions in the North

Although the situation is actually much more complex than I

am able to present it here, from the perspective of the northern,

or Germanic, region there were essentially two great traditions

of magic, the northern and the southern. They are not of over-

riding importance to our study, since we are concentrating on

the Icelandic tradition, which was by far the most conservative

of the Germanic lands. But when we look at the magical tra-

ditions of England and Germany as early as the tenth century

or at the magical teachings in Sweden in the sixteenth century,

we see the transmission of virtually pure magical traditions — in

the form of literature often translated in part into the vernacu-

lar — from the Mediterranean to the northern lands. Of course,

it must be understood that the Mediterranean “tradition” was by

this time an entirely artificial and composite one made up mainly

of elements from Greco-Egyptian, Judeo-Christian, and even

“eastern” features from various Near Eastern and Indian cults

(e.g. , Manichaeanism) . This synthetic Mediterranean tradition

marched steadily against the northern tradition, not (as with

religion) by brute economic and military force but by the gentler

force of prestige.

In no region is this whole process clearer and more polarized

than in Germany. There the second Merseburg spell is the last

record of Wodan’s name being used in a magical context. How-

ever, the use of his name continues into the 1700s and beyond

in Iceland and remote regions of Scandinavia — and perhaps even

in the countryside of England. In Germany we find that the old

folk tradition, although to a great extent superficially “Chris-

tianized,” retained a heathen spirit. 11 This tradition continued

to be practiced at the level of the common folk in the countryside

and on the heaths, but in the cities and university towns the

Mediterranean tradition was being developed, articulated, and,

THE GALDRABOK

typically, improved by German scholars and magicians from the

semilegendary Georg (Johann) Faustus (1480-1539?) to Albertus

Magnus (1193-1280), Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim

(Paracelsus) (1493-1541), and Cornelius Agrippa von Nette-

sheim (1486-1535). The influence of the two traditions was

mutual. An examination of the German hermetic magicians will

show a high level of interest in and use of the local folk traditions.

In turn, the folk traditions were saturated with non-Germanic

figures and entities that have largely replaced the pagan ones.

The Old Gods

and the Demons of Hell

T he traditional gods and goddesses of the Germanic people;

had an uncanny way of surviving in the Icelandic national

tradition of magic and folklore. Although we find only

isolated mention in the oldest sources of German or English oi

even in other Scandinavian traditions, we find a widespread and

vigorous life for the old gods in the Icelandic world. The reasons

for this should be obvious from the foregoing discussions of the

peculiarities of Icelandic socioreligious history.

As far as the old gods in the other Germanic traditions of

magic are concerned, the reader should consult the relevant

appendixes in this book. The texts in those sections have been

selected principally on the basis of what they tell us of the most

traditional levels of magic, which includes the use of not only

the names of the old divinities but also the contexts in which

they occur.

Here we will look at the complete picture of the “theology”

and/or “demonology” presented in the Galdrabok and related

Icelandic texts. It is our principal aim to look at the survival of

the heathen divinities as such, but we will also examine their

relationship and apparent assimilation to the mytho-magical fig-

ures from the Judeo-Christian tradition, both evil and good.

The Heathen Gods and Goddesses

In the Germanic tradition, as well as in every other indigenous

tradition over which Christianity was laid, the old popular di-

vinities survived in at least two ways: (1) by being driven “un-

derground,” where they often lived alongside the other rejected

entities {e.g. , demons), or (2) by being assimilated to accepted

or established entities. This latter method was by far the more

common throughout all traditions. In some cases the old gods

were identified with Jesus, his disciples, the apostles, and most

commonly with various saints. These saints were sometimes

preexisting ones, but in some cases there seems to have been a

virtual canonization of the old divinities under new “Christian-

ized” names and circumstances. ! This is really a separate study,

as we can be concerned here only with those instances found in

magical texts. However, it is worth realizing that this was a

general and widespread phenomenon not limited to the magical

arena. 2

By far the most vigorously represented of the old gods in

the Icelandic sources is, not surprisingly, the Galdrafodhur (Father

Figure 1 : Six galdrastafir recorded by Jon Amason.

The Old Gods and the Demons of Hell

of Magic) — Odhinn. Not only does his name appear in virtually

every litany of names of the old gods, but also his heiti (Ice.;

nicknames) frequently appear as names of magical signs or in

other litanies. For example, Jon Amason records a series of six

galdrastafir, each with a distinctive name. 3 (See Figure 1.)

Of the six, four- (2-5) are well attested Odhinn nicknames. 4

These and other such magical bynames of Odhinn show that

knowledge concerning the complex lore of Odhinn’s various

functions was kept alive, not merely his most usual name. In the

Galdrabok Odhinn’s names are recorded in a total of six spells

(33, 34, 41, 43, 45, and 46). Of these, two (33 and 45) are for

uncovering thieves, two (34 and 43) are love spells, and 41 is

to allay the anger of another — which is needed, given the mal-

ificent curse formula of Spell 46! A review of those spells will

show that Odhinn can be found in any company and for a wide

spectrum of magical aims. Every indication points to the com

tinued active — even if corrupted — knowledge of Odhinn and his

magical functions. Of all of the names of the old ones, Odhinn

is, as Spell 43 puts it, the megttugaste (mightiest).

Perhaps the second most actively represented of the old gods

is Thorr. This is not surprising either, since he seems to have

been the most popular god in pagan Iceland. In the Galdrabok

he is not represented outside the litanies of divine and de-

monic names in spells 43, 45, and 46. However, there is other

evidence show that Thorr’s role in Icelandic magic was significant

through a galdrastafur called the Thorshamar (Thorr’s hammer).

The name of this sign was attached to several forms over a long

history. At one time it was ascribed to the solar wheel, or swas-

tika, and is recorded in the folktale material of Jon Arnason

with the form , which seems reminiscent of the old solar

wheel. 5

Curiously enough, the names of these two gods appear to

have survived right up to modern times in locations remote from

THE GALDRABOK

Iceland. In England during the late 19th century the following

magical incantation was recorded in the dialect of Lancashire:

Throice I smoites with Holy Crok,

with this mell [hammer] Oi throice dew knock,

One for God,

An’ one for Wod,

An’ one for Lok . 6

The Wod mentioned here is obviously Wod(en), and the Lok

probably refers to Loki— all of which points to a survival of an

odd mixture of English and Scandinavian lore. In this century

a German woman in North Carolina was found to be using the

name of Thor(r) in combination with the Holy Trinity in a

healing rite. 7

Besides these two prominent divinities mentioned in various

spells, at least two of the elder divinities’ names appear as part

of the names of certain herbs. Friggjargras (the herb of Frigg) is

mentioned in Spell 40, and another herb is called Baldursbrd

(the brow of Baldur). Frigg was the wife of Odhinn, and Baldur

was one of his sons, who was known for his invulnerability, his

perfection, and his murder at the hands of Loki and Hodhur.

At least one myth is alluded to directly in Spell 46 of the

Galdrabdk, which says: “thou wilt be as weak as the fiend Loki,

who was bound by all the gods.” This shows that the mythic

material recorded in the Poetic and Prose Eddas was well known

to the galdramadhur who composed the spell. 8

Although there are some spells in which single Germanic

god names appear, it is more usual for them to be used in litanies

of god names. We see these in spells 33, 43, 45, and 46. There

are several things worth noting about these litanies. They contain

the names of the great gods and goddesses of the ancient Ger-

The Old Gods and the Demons of Hell

manic religion, but they do not seem to be organized in any way

especially meaningful to the pagan theology. Also, the last three

of these four litanies are really syncretic compositions in which

the Germanic names appear right alongside names from Judeo-

Christian and Mediterranean myth and magic. But the overall

impression is that the Judeo-Christian elements are newcomers

in an already established magical system.

This impression is strengthened by the fact that not only

are the great divinities of the Germanic high mythology present

but also that the so-called lesser divinities of the pagan Germanic

cosmos give shape to the magical world view of the Galdrabok.

There are several mentions of the belief that trolls or elves could

be responsible for afflictions by means of magical “shots,” or

projectiles hurled at people (see spells 21 and 39), whereas the

“giants,” or more precisely, etins (Ice. jotnar), are mentioned

twice (see spells 33 and 34).

Perhaps one of the most interesting survivals is the name

of the dwelling place of the gods — Walhalla (Ice. Valholl). Val-

holl is the “hall [or perhaps “rock”] of the slain” and is held to

be a dwelling place in Asgardhur (court of the gods) in which

Odinic warriors who died in battle are housed in the supernal

realm. This shows a certain continuance of cosmological tradi-

tions from the heathen past that impressed itself on the structure

of the new entities coming to the north.

The Demons of Hell

Not only are the old gods of the Germanic peoples said to be in

Valholl, but in the view of the galdramenn who wrote this book,

so too were demons of Hebraic mythology — Satan and Beelze-

bub — to be found there. The most revealing formula is found in

THE GALDRABCJK

Spell 43, where we read: “Help me in this, all ye gods: Thorr,

Odhinn, Frigg, Freija, Satan, Beelzebub, and all those gods and

goddesses that dwell in Valholl. ” The fact that Satan had come

to Valholl was a significant event in the history of Icelandic

magic. This symbolically and eloquently shows how the southern

magical elements were at first assimilated in the north on terms

set by the northern tradition.

From the standpoint of the new establishment culture, how-

ever, this had the net effect of “diabolizing” the old Germanic

gods. To a great extent, but certainly not exclusively, the ole

gods were equated with devils in the Christian mind. As time

went on, especially beginning at the time of the Galdrabok,

aggressive magical spells would be more likely to use the old god:

or demons in their formulas, whereas protective spells were more

likely to make use of Christian elements. This is obviously noi

a hard and fast rule at the time of the Galdrabdk but only e

general tendency.

As noted earlier, the old characteristics and functions o

the multifaceted traditional deities became split up by the more

dualistic and dichotomizing Christian dogmas, so for a while the

old gods could feel at home alongside Jesus or Satan. But wher

all was said and done, because of fundamental defects in Christiar

doctrine, the old gods and goddesses of Valholl ultimately fount

the company of Beelzebub and Satan more to their liking.

It might be convincingly argued that the way for this proces;

in Scandinavia had been prepared centuries earlier. That is be

cause the Christianization of various Indo-European people

(Greeks, Romans, Celts, and the kindred Germans) was gen

erally accompanied by a suppression of the pagan gods througl

campaigns of diabolizing them — turning them into devils. It i

then no wonder that the heathen deities of the north — or mor<

precisely their sympathizers and followers — would recognize thei

kith and kin in the guise of the Christian “devils.” Nowhere i

The Old Gods and the Demons of Hell

this process more blatantly shown than in a Low German bap-

tismal oath from the ninth century:

Forsakest thou the devils?

et responded 1 forsake the devils.

and all devilish sacrifices?

responded and I forsake all devilish sacrifices.

and all devilish works?

respondet: and I forsake all the works and words of

the devil, and Thunar and Woden and

Saxnote and all those who are their com-

panions.

Dost thou believe in God the Almighty Father?

respondet: I believe in God the Almighty Father.

Belie vest thou in Christ the Son of God?

responded I believe in Christ the Son of God.

Believest thou in the Holy Ghost?

responded I believe in the Holy Ghost . 9

On the other hand, and especially in the Catholic period,

the new religion was heavily impressed with heathen ideas. Cer-

tain aspects of the old faith were superficially Christianized, and

many old traditions were given a Christian veneer. In the world

of the magicians this meant that Christian figures could some-

times be used right next to pagan deities. And as our wondrous

example in Spell 46 shows, the northern sorcerer was so free

magically that he could use the names of Odhinn, the Savior,

and Satan in the same litany.

It might also be true that many times when the words “lord”

(Ice. drottinn) or “god” (Ice. gudh) are used, they are not free of

heathen connotations.

The Icelandic magical triangle of Germanic entities, Chris-

tian entities, and Christo-demonic entities is a peculiar one in

THE GALDRAB6k

that the old gods remained relatively stronger in Iceland than

anywhere else, and they survived most vigorously in magical

practice. Even in the folktales “heathen knowledge” is equated

with sorcery. Further, it seems that taken as a whole and as far

as magic is concerned, the demonic entities were never as “evil”

nor the Christian figures ever quite as “good” as they seem to

have been in other regions.

CHAPTER

Runes and Magical Signs

II y the 16 th century the ancient lore of the runes was in

m "m a highly corrupt state. However, the history of magic

■ J shows that confused forms can apparently still be used

meaningfully by skilled sorcerers. What is of interest for us here

is the way in which essential methods of runic magical tech-

nique — very different from those of the magic that could have

been imported from the Mediterranean — were handed down in

the Icelandic tradition. The two major distinctive graphic fea-

tures are the use of runes or runelike signs and the use of magical

signs (galdramyndir) that may or may not have runic origins.

Another striking feature is the very technique by which this

magic was worked, as it is virtually identical with that of the

rune magic of the heathen age.

The runes themselves continued to be known as a practical

script in Iceland, and we see them used to write inscriptions in

and around some of the magical sigils in Appendix A, for ex-

ample. But these relatively clear instances of runic writing were

far less prevalent than the use of encoded runic forms called

villuletur or villurunir, which were meant to confuse and conceal

THE GALDRABOK

rather than actually reveal meanings. One of the ways in which

runelore was apparently used by the wizards who compiled these

spells was to have certain numbers of runelike figures arranged

in a way that suggested the runic system. Notes to spells 12-19,

for example, show a variety of ways in which the numerical

systems and the forms of the runes themselves were used in

magical “staves. ” There seems to be an effort to have a significant

number of figures to make up complexes of signs, so there are

twenty-four or sixteen or eight of them in the formulas.

Another feature apparently inherited from ancient runic

magical practice is the very terminology used to describe the

figures and ways of using them. Most often the figures are referred

to in Icelandic as stafir (sg. stafur) — “staves.” This is inherited

from the old technical designation of runes as staves or sticks

because they were often carved on such wooden objects for tab

ismanic purposes. The execution of these figures for magical

purposes is indicated by the Icelandic verbs reisa (to scratch) or

rista (to carve). These are used in contexts that show that actual

cutting or carving is intended (e.g. , into wooden objects) but

also in contexts that show that what is actually intended is more

like writing, as with ink and quill on parchment or paper. How-

ever, the old magical runic terminology died hard.

Probably the most outstanding single feature of the Icelandic

books of magic is their use of complex magical signs. Most efforts

at classifying these signs try to come to grips with their relation-

ships to the runes and their magical functions. 1 There seem tc

be three main types of such signs: (1) bandrunir (bind runes,

made up of more or less obvious combinations of runes), (2)

galdrastafir (magic staves, which were perhaps originally bine

runes but which have become so stylized as to take on inde-

pendent lives of their own), and (3) galdramyndir (magic signs,

which seem to have always been nonrunic abstract signs, suck

Runes and Magical Signs

as the Thorr’s hammer discussed above). Many of the signs appear

to be combinations of runes and abstract cosmological signs. The

main problem in any effort to “decipher” these signs is the long-

standing tradition of stylization and simplification (or artificial

complication). Another form of classification has to do with their

magical functions. If they were intended to be protective amulets,

they might be called by the Latin name innsigli (sigils) or by the

Icelandic term varnasiafir (protective staves). The term galdra-

stafir would then indicate magic of an operative nature, meant

to cause alterations in the environment. Protective magic could

be Christian and would often use biblical passages to charge the

figure with intent, but operative magic was very often considered

heathen (or devilish).

Again, it is almost impossible to read any linguistic meaning

in the galdrastafir (and many of the bandrunir ) without having

some lead given in the commentaries. These leads usually come

in the form of names given to these signs. Examples of these are

given in Figure 1, on page 38, with the bandrunir that have been

stylized in the medium of pen and ink. Nevertheless, many of

their runic features are obvious. However, many of the names

given to magical signs seem to have to do with their functions

and not their forms. The names themselves are usually unique

words that are highly obscure in meaning. The two most famous

names of such signs are aegishjdlmur (the helm of awe, or

terror) ^ and svefnthorn (sleep-thorn) The aegishjdlmur could

become a very complex kind of figure, but its basic form was that

of a four- or eightfold cross with branches at its terminals. With

these two signs we are lucky because we have mythic survivals

that give us some insight into their origins and meanings.

The aegishjdlmur is mentioned in the material concerning

Sigurdhr Fafnir-bane. 2 When Sigurdhr slays the great etin-worm,

or serpent, named Fafnir in order to win the treasure hoard of

Figure 2: Sator-square.

the Niflungs (Niebelungs), one of the “objects” of power thai

he gets is the segishjdlmur. This object is not a helmet but more

of a general covering that surrounds the “wearer” with an over-

awing power to terrify and subdue his enemies. The power i:

concentrated in or between the eyes and is often associated with

the power serpents have to paralyze their prey. This is apparently

an ancient Indo-European concept, as is shown in the etymology

of the Greek drakon — the one with the evil eye. We also thin!

of the Gorgons’ ability to paralyze with the gaze of their eyes sel

in a head surmounted with serpents. Whatever the origins ol

the Icelandic magical sign, its function remains essentially the

Kwnes and Magical Signs 49

same, but here there are practical indications, not just mythic ah

lusions.

The svefnthorn is also mentioned in Old Norse mythic lit-

erature as the magical device with which Odhinn placed one of

the valkyrjur, Sigrdrifa (or Brynhildr), into a deep slumber, from

which she could be awakened only by one who could cross the

magical barrier of fire placed around her by Odhinn. ! This feat

too was accomplished by the Odhinic hero Sigurdhr F&fnir-bane.

Spells intended to put people into a deep slumber from which

they can be awakened only by the magical will of the sorcerer

are common in the Icelandic books, but the signs used and given

the name svefnthorn are numerous.

Besides these two well-attested signs there are many names

given to signs, for example, gapaldur (see note on Spell 34),

vedhurgapi (weather daredevil, to cause a storm), kaupaloki (deal

closer, for good business), Ginnir (a name of Odhinn), A ngurgapi

(reckless one of anger). But quite often the same name may be

given to two or more different signs.

Despite the fact that it is obviously of southern origin, no

discussion of magical figures in the medieval north would be

complete without mentioning the so-called sa tor-square. 4 This

most often appears inscribed with Latin letters (see Figure 2).

This formula has already been touched on in connection with

the magic books of Jon the Learned. The formula was apparently

well known, as magical instructions often call for reciting the

sator-arepo. It is difficult to tell what exactly is meant by this.

Was there a secret decoding (such as pastor Gudhmundur sus-

pected), or were the letters of magical syllables to be recited?

Another interesting aspect of the sator-square in the north is the

fact that not only is it mentioned in books of magic, but it is

also found in at least seven runic inscriptions! One fragmentary

example was recently found on the bottom of a bowl in Sweden, 5

and it reads as shown in Figure 3 on page 50.

THE GAJ.DRABOK

W /I i 4

A R \ K

1 F h i

Figure 3: Inscription on the bottom of a bowl found in Sweden.

T he bowl dates from the end of the 1300s, so it can be seen that

the use of this formula is several hundred years older than out

magical books would indicate.

Theory and Practice of Magic

in the Galdrabok

g A examples such as the sator-square point up the fact that

gj there were definitely influences coming into the north

from the southern traditions of magic. But to some extent

these examples serve also to show the remarkable degree to which

basic northern ideas of how magic works and how to work magic

remained intact even under this superficial influence.

In this chapter I want to look at the underlying theories of

magic as expressed in the Icelandic grimoires, at the powers by

which it is thought to work, and at some of its consistent ritual

techniques.

One of the ways we can see the northern component is by

observing how these magical elements were dealt with in the

north in contrast to the south. 1 2 3 * 5 The typical structure of Medi-

terranean magic involves five steps with five particular functions:

1. Preparation (specific to working)

2. Circle

3. Conjuration of spirit

4- Address to spirit

5. License to depart

THE GALDRABOk

The preparation typically involves two main aspects: (1) the

procurement or arrangement of tools and substances particular

to the operation and (2) the determination of an auspicious time

for the operation. The latter usually involves technical knowl-

edge of astrology. (By the way, Icelandic magic is almost free of

astrological elements.) A circle — really a complex of magical

diagrams drawn on the surface of the space of operation — is

erected. This typically includes a circle in which the magician

stands and a triangle outside that circle in which the spirit ap-

pears. The circle functions as a shield to protect the magician

from the spirit, and the triangle serves to constrain the spirit.

The entity is then called to appearance by a series of conjurations,

which are a mixture of prayer formulas and commanding threats.

Usually the spirit in question is threatened with the wrath of

spirits above it in the hierarchies of heaven or hell. Once the

spirit arrives, the magician addresses it, asking or commanding

what he wills. Traditionally (and despite whatever revisionist

theorists may say), the spirit does the work for the magician.

The rite is concluded by a license to depart, which banishes the

spirit away from the magician.

There are certain traits in this theoretical working model

that remain foreign to the Icelandic magician. There rarely seems

to be any preparation for the specific working. It would seem

that the Icelandic magician constantly prepared himself in a

general way and then applied his spells almost in a rough-and-

ready fashion. This is very reminiscent of the way Egill Skalla-

grfmsson worked. Further, the Icelandic magician never seems

to need to protect himself from the powers he is calling on. (He

appears more concerned with other humans.) Although spiritual

entities are involved, it seems closer to the truth to say they help

the magician work his will than work it for him. And since the

magician has no need to protect himself from the entities he

summons, he has no need to banish them.

Theory and Practice of Magic in the Galdrabdk

5 :

Generally, medieval Icelandic magic seems to have workec

through one of a combination of three media: ( 1 ) graphic signs

(2) spoken or written words, and (3) natural substances. Spel

46 in the Galdrabdk shows a combination of all three elements,

for example.

Graphic signs (including runes and other written characters'

are thought to be conduits or doorways through which variou:

powers or entities are directed to do the will of the magician.

These signs are generally called stafir (staves). The actual physical

sign seems to have little power on its own; it is only in combi-

nation with the will of a trained magician that any results car

be expected. That is why, in the folktales concerning the famous

galdramenn, such emphasis is placed on their scholarly characters

and on the fact that the signs had to be learned by a process

that involved more time and effort than just memorizing then

external forms. Also, the fact that except for the most common

signs (e.g., the gegishjdlmur or Thorshamar) the shapes of the

“staves” are rarely repeated, even when they might be called by

the same name, indicates that it was an inner form, not an

external shape, that was mainly being “learned.”

Words (spoken or written) are the medium often used tc

activate the signs, or words can work alone either to direct or

command some power or entity or to beseech an entity to act

on behalf of the magician. This latter prayer-type formula is

usually found only in spells of a Christianized kind. In the me-

dieval Icelandic formularies words and names can activate the

corresponding power or entity in a way desired by the magician

and as formulated in his verbal spell. The “power of the name”

is a well-known phenomenon in the annals of magic. 2 We know

that such a belief reaches back into the Germanic past. Its most

famous depiction is in the lore surrounding Sigurdhr Fafnir-bane:

after fatally wounding the serpent Fafnir, Sigurdhr attempts to

conceal his name from the dying giant (etin) because, as we read

THE GALDRAB6K

in the Fafnismal, “it was the belief in olden times that the words

of a doomed man had great might, if he cursed his foe by name. ” 3

This ancient Germanic lore was, of course, further reinforced by

the importation of Judeo-Gnostic names of God or words of power

that are heaped up in some of the Christian-type spells (e.g. , in

the Galdrabdk spells 1, 3, 12, and 21). In all cases these verbal

elements are seen as being vitally linked to the actual things

they name, and therefore willful and trained manipulation of

such words and names constitutes a manipulation of the actual

things or entities.

Certain substances were thought to have a predisposition

for use in magical operations, the most typical being blood and

woods of various kinds. Both are well represented in the heathen

type of spell. The blood of the magician or that of an animal is

used in spells 34, 45, 46, and 47. Four kinds of wood — oak,

rowan, alder, and ash — are mentioned in six spells (9, 29, 32,

33, 36, and 47). In all but the last of these, staves of one kind

or another are to be carved into the wood. Again, this is a direct

continuation of runic magical practice. Herbs are also mentioned

in several spells. The most useful are millefolium (yarrow) and

F riggjargras (orchis odoratissima or satyrium albidium). Many other

spells make use of various substances on which staves are to be

carved. In each case there seems to be an underlying analogical

reason for the use of the substance, which must be evaluated on

a case-by-case basis.

In the spells of Icelandic magic the emphasis is laid heavily

on the person of the magician. He is rarely said to have the

explicit help of outside forces, and the rituals, such as they are,

are quite simple procedures. This is again in sharp contrast with

the hocus-pocus of the complex grimoires of the southern tra-

dition.

Since there is such a heavy emphasis on the person of the

magician, it is necessary to take a closer look at what makes up

Theory and Practice of Magic in the Galdrabok

the psychophysical complex of the individual human being. The

ancient Germanic peoples had a complex and well-developed

structure for these psychic aspects of the human being. We can

know this to a fairly exact degree because they had such a well-

developed set of technical terms for the psyche. In heathen times

this body-soul structure could have been described as having (1)

a physical body (ON Uk), (2) a shape or semiphysical body image

(ON hamr), (3) a faculty of inspiration (ON 6dhr) , (4) a vital

breath (ON ond), (5) a volitive/cognitive/perceptive faculty (ON

hugr), (6) a reflective faculty (ON mmnt), (7) a “shade” or after-

death image (ON sdl or, figuratively, skuggi, shadow), (8) a per-

manent magical soul, or fetch (ON fylgja), and (9) a dynamistic

empowering substance that gives luck, protection, and the ability

to shape-shift (ON hamingja ). 4

Unfortunately, with the coming of Christianity, the refined

native psychology, or lore of the soul, was assailed and began to

decay and become very confused. In our Galdrabxkur we only

have the bare remnants of a fragmented system. What is clear,

however, is that the Icelandic magicians preserved some of the

technical lore in the ways they believed magic worked. It seems

fairly clear that even in the period in which those spells were

being used the magicians realized (1) an animating or vital prin-

ciple, (2) a personal image, and (3) a separable power entity by

which “sendings” (Ice. sendingar) were sent, and (4) an essential

core faculty of “heart and mind” (ON hugr).

For example, it is obvious that curse formulas are meant to

deplete the vital energy of a person or animal, and protective

formulas are meant to build up this faculty. Other formulas are

intended to change the quality of the contents of the hugur —

for example, to cause someone to fear or love the magician. The

ability to see shades, or images, of other people, especially ones

who have stolen something from the magician, is also frequently

mentioned.

THE GAWRABdK

To conclude this discussion of the theory of magic implied

in the spells of the Galdrabok and related texts, perhaps a careful

analysis of one spell would bring things into sharper focus.

I refer to Spell 34 in the Galdrabok. This is a spell to get

the love of a woman. It is an attempt to turn her free will

genuinely toward the magician, but it is couched in the magical

forms of threats and curses. A review of the magical procedures

would include a complex set of actions. First, the woman’s being

is linked to the formula by means of location (placing of staves,

etc. , “in a place where she will go over it”) and essence (writing

her name with staves); then the magician’s (sexual?) being is

linked with the woman’s being and with the magical formulas

by means of the “etin-spear blood” (semen?); and finally, the

magical signs that graphically embody the aim of the operation

are inscribed and the whole contained in a ring of water. All of

this has linked the woman, the magician, and the aim in an

essential but as yet only general way. This symbolic and graphic

series of actions and signs is then empowered and given a highly

specific direction by the words of the spell spoken over the forms.

This spell includes references to how the formula is to work

within the psychological scheme as understood by the magician.

It includes graphic imagery and a prayerlike entreaty to Odhinn

for success. (Odhinn is, by the way, known in the ancient myth-

ology for his interest in spells of this kind. ) Just about all elements

common in medieval Icelandic spells are to be found in this

operation. And again, it should not be missed that the general

procedure is quite the same as that practiced by the heathen

runic magicians of the north.

THE

GALDRABOK

1 . A prayer for protection against all kinds of dangers

This prayer ought to be worn on oneself in all kinds of dangers

that threaten from water, sea, and weapons. It should also be

read just before one sees one’s enemies: Iesus Christus Emanuel,

pater et Domine. Deus meus Zebaoth, Adonaij, Unitas, Trinitas,

Sapientja, Via, Vita, manus, Homo, usiono, Caritas et terus,

Creator, Redemtor, Suos, Finis, unigienitus, Fons, Spes, jmas,

et tu Ergomanus, Splendor, Lux, Grammaton, Flos, Mundus

imasio, paracletus, Columba, Corona, prophetas, Humilas, For

tissimus, Atanatos, Kyrias, Kyrios, Kyrieeleison.

Jamas, Lux, tua, Grammaton, Caput, Alpha et prime

Genue, isus, Agnus, ovis, Vitulos, Serpens, Leo, Vermus, unu

Spiritus Sanctus, Helio, Heloj, Lamasabactanj, Consumatum est

jnclinate capite, Spiritus jesus vinset, jesus imperat, Redemtor

Deus Abraham, Deus jsaac, Deus jacob.

Uriel, Tobiel, Geraleel, Gabriel, Raphael, Michael, Cher

ubin, Cheraphin, Caspar, Fert miram, Meloiorus, Balthasar

Aurum, et trjva nomi, qvis Super pontavit, Solvetur, Avisibet

petate, Adam, Eva, jesus Nazarenus, Rex judiorum, jesus Chris

tus Filj Dei, Miserere mej.

Petrus, Andrias, jacobus, jahannes, Philippus, Bartolomeus

Simon, judas, Matthias, Lucas, Paulus, Barnabas.

qvi me Defendit a Canibus, in manus Comentuum Spiriturr

meum, Redemisti meum Verita tue Amen. 1

THE GALDRABOK

2. For protection against weariness and affliction

The prayer written above must also be read if anyone is bored or

sick in any way, and it will be stopped.

3. Against trouble with childbearing 2

Read the three following words three times into the ear of a

woman who cannot be made to part with her child in birth and

say the Pater Noster three times in between; then things will get

better: GALATH, MALGALATH, SARATHIM. After this fol-

lows three Pater Nosters in Latin:

Pater Noster qvi es in Cells, Santificetur nomen tuum, ad-

veniat Regnum tuum, fiat voluntas tua, Sic ut in ceio, et in terra

panem nostrum qvotidianum, da nobis hodie, et Dimitte nobis,

debita nostra, Sic ut et nos, Dimittimus, Debitoribus nostris, et

ne nos inducas, in tentationem, Sed libera nos a malo Amen

qvja tuum est Regnum, tua potenja et Gloria in Secula Secuorum

Amen.

4. To stanch blood 3

To stanch blood that is flowing from a man’s body, read this

verse three times, with a Pater Noster in between; but if you

want to stanch blood on the head, then hold your thumbs against

the eyes and say:

Sangvis maneat in te, Sic ut fecit Christus in se, Sangvis

maneat in tua vena, Sicut fetit Christus in Sua pena, Sangvis

maneat fixus, Sicut qvando Christus fuit Crussifixus. Pater Nos-

ter.

To stanch a nosebleed for someone, write these words on

his forehead in his own nose blood: CONSUMMATUM EST,

5. A gainst headache and insomnia

Against headache and sleeplessness write this verse and leave it

in his nightcap, or under his head in the evening without him

The Galdrabok

knowing it, and it will help him: MILANT VA VITALOTF

JEOBOA FEBAOTH. 4

6. A spell against evil when some other

incantations are a problem

If you want to treat someone, but some incantations (galldrar,

are upon him, then read this over him three times, and also le

him read the following himself if you wish:

Vulnera Sub qvinis, te Subtrae Christe Ruins, Vulnen

qvinqve Dei, Sunt medisina tuj.

But if you let him read it himself, then also have him reac

the following (you should also read this if you are reading ove:

yourself): VULNERA SUB QVINIS, ME SUBTRAE CHRISTI

RUINIS, VULNERA QVINQVE DEI, SUNTT MEDISINA ME]

7. Against fainting or pestilence of livestock

One has to clip or cut these helms of awe 3 onto one’s livestocl

if it is swooning or diseased; the first one should be put on the

left shoulder and the other one on the right.

8. To win a girl’s love

Likewise, you should, while fasting, make the second helm o

awe with your saliva in your palm when you greet the girl whorr

you want to have; in such a case it should be in your right hand.

THE GALDRABOK

9. To cause fear in an enemy

If you want your foe to be afraid of you whenever he sees you, ther

carve these staves on an oak branch 6 and wear it in the middle o

your breast — and see to it that you see him before he sees you

9A *e

10. To get one’s wish fulfilled

Read this verse three times forward and three times backward

and you will get the outcome that you want.

Forward: Sprend manns Hoc, flijde tuui boll 7

Backward: Boll tuui flijde, Hoc manns Sprend 8

11. Against the hate and poison of fiends and enemies

Whoever carries the following sigil on himself will never bt

harmed by any of the Fiend’s temptation, and his enemy wil

not be able to work any active hate against him. Nor will he b<

exposed to any poison in his food or drink, and he will neve:

fail victim to any treacherous dealings.

The Galdrabok

12. Against distress at sea, dangerous weapons,

and sudden death

Whoever carries this name on himself cannot be drowned in the

sea, nor be struck by hostile weapons; nor will he die an un-

pleasant death, and neither come to harm:

Helon Heloui Helion

Saa bonaij lux tetram Gramatus 9

13. Against harm from an enemy

If anyone carries these staves on himself, nothing can harm him

all day, and his enemies will not have any power over him. 10

2 >-' 11

1 4. Against all kinds of suffering and danger

The person, man or woman, who carries these staves on himself

will be stricken with no torment. And no sword can harm him,

nor any of his enemies, and no worm 11 will get into his food or

drink. 12

THE GALDRABOK

15. To win the love of a person

You should write this one and have it with you, and men will

love you very much. 53

D A ^ 0:2 2: <r

-E :

16. To cause fear in your enemies

If you want your enemies to fear you, always carry this stave

under your left arm. 14

17. To win the favor of powerful men

You should write this, and always have it with you, and powerful

men will like you very much.

pc -2>i> . o >

The Galdrabok

1 8. For protection against all kinds of evil

If you wish to elude something that is evil [illtj, then carry these

staves with you so that nothing can harm you, no sword and no

torment; neither [will there be) any worm nor poison in your food

or drink. 15

K-HlShT- HH-

i • f-%:

19. To cause fear

Carry these following staves with you, and your enemies will fear

you. 16

fh* CJC

6X *

20. A washing verse

I WASH MYSELF in thy dew and dales 17 in the brilliance of

thy fire, my lord. I set thy blessed form between my eyes. I wash

away all of my foes and their spells \formali]. I wash away from

myself the power and anger of mighty men. The world shall be

kind to me, with friends and kind deeds. The earth \frdn] shall

be gracious to me in goods [fe] and acquisitions. Everything will

THE GALDRAB 6k

be successful that I need to do, to speak, to think. This I bid

thee, lord, king of glory [dyrdarkonungur], so that everyone who

sees me today will have to cast kind glances at me and will be

delighted with me, as the blessed MAID MARION was with her

blessed, lovely son when she found him by the river Jordan, and

when she found him in the minster, and when she sought him

as a mourner. Likewise, I bid thee, lord of lords and king of

kings, that thou wilt turn away from me and remove all ruin and

ill luck, all malice and all treachery on the part of others, who

want to deceive me in words and through words, in deeds and

through deeds, in incantations [{ golldruw] and through incan-

tations, or in whatever way they want to ruin me. Hear thou

my prayer, my dear lord. I have faith in thee and I trust in all

good things. Amen. 18

21. Byrnie 19 -prayer

HEAR THOU ME, HOLY TRINITY, Father, Son, and holy

ghost [andi], sole lord, Shaper of all things, ruling in glory with

all the saints. Be thou a bymie and a shield for my soul [sal],

my life, and my body [likama], inside as well as outside, for seeing

and hearing, tasting, smelling, and feeling, for flesh and blood,

veins and sinews, cartilage and bone, bowels and all of my body’s

movements and connections. Indeed, for thy name’s sake, lord,

may all my joints and limbs receive life and spirit, to move, and

to be strengthened and become whole. Protect me, my lord, on

the right and left sides, forward and backward, above and below, 20

from the inside and outside, when I bow down and when I rise

up, in hard weather, in waters great and small, in the sea, in

high waves, and in confusing darkness, when I am walking,

standing, sitting, in sleep and while awake, in silence and while

talking, and in all my body’s workings. Protect me, my lord, days

and nights; help me, almighty God in holy trinity — ADONA1J

AGIJOS OTHEOS AG1JOS YSKYROS AGIJOS ATHANA-

The Galdrabdk

THOS ELEYSON YMAS ZEBAOTH EMANUEL— save me,

my lord, from deadly dangers that threaten from land, from the

waters and sea, from all beasts and monsters of the ocean, birds

and beasts that go on four feet, and all creeping beasts.

Protect me, my lord, from all evil, from fire and claps of

thunder [ reidar thrumum], from snow and hail, from rain and

wind, from earthquakes and all kinds of movements in the earth,

and from all dangerous phases of the moon, from magical poison

[af eitre fiolkinga], from all glances of envious eyes, from evil words

and works and dangerous situations, from worms, from all the

devils of darkness and midday, and flying shots from them 21 that

daily are going out into the darkness of this world. Protect me,

my lord, from all the hostility of the enemy, who wants to

withhold from me all good things, here before death, and in

death, and in the other world after death, thou lord god, who

ever lives and rules in holy, perfect trinity, one god in all ages

of ages. Amen.

22. Days that bring bad luck

These are the days that the old ones held to be unlucky; they

seemed especially so for the Egyptians: 22

January

the

1st and 7th

February

the

3rd and 4th

March

the

1st and 4 th

April

the

8th and 10th

May

the

3rd and 7th

June

the

10 th and 15 th

July

the

10 th and 13 th

August

the

1st and 2nd

September

the

3rd and 10th

October

the

3rd and 10th

November

the

3rd and 5th

December

the

7 th and 10 th

THE GALDRABOK

23. To be able to count up playing cards, which are face down 25

1 : 739 King ; 6 : 5

4 : Knave : 8 :

Queen 10.2

24. The 1 09th Psalm of David 1 *

God do not be silent concerning ray praise, for they have un-

locked their ungodly mouths against me and speak against me

with a false tongue.

And they speak venomously against me everywhere and

strive against me without cause.

Because I love them, they are against me, but I pray. They

repay me ill for good and hate for love.

Set a man who does not fear god over him, and the fiend 25

should stand at his right hand.

When his case comes to judgment, he will go out con-

demned and his prayer will become sin. 26

May his days be few and may another take his office.

May his children be fatherless and his housewife a widow.

May his children wander aimlessly and beg for alms and fare

about like poor men who are ruined.

May the usurers suck out everything that he has, and may

strangers grab all his wealth.

And may there be none who will show him any goodness and

may there be none who will have pity on his fatherless children.

May his descendants be rooted out and may their name be

wiped out in the next generation. May the misdeeds of his fore-

fathers be remembered and put before the face of the lord, and

the sins of the mother never be blotted out.

May the lord never forget them and the memory of them

will be wiped away from the earth.

The Galdrabdk

Because he was so merciless in every endeavor, and perse-

cuted those poor and needy, he would send even those filled

with grief to Hel [i.e. , kill them].

And as he desired cursing, so let him have it, and as he did

not desire blessing, therefore it will stay far away from him.

And as he clothed himself with cursing, just as with a gar-

ment, so it will run into his bowels like water and into his bones

liken to butter.

May it be to him like a garment in which he is clothed,

and liken to a belt with which he is girded all the time, as is

fitting. May that happen to those who are my enemies and who

speak maliciously against my soul . 27 But thou, lord, will be with

me for thy name’s sake because thy mercy is my consolation,

deliver thou me, because I am poor and helpless — my heart is

broken in two within me.

I go away from here as a shadow 28 as it fades away, and I

am driven away as a swarm of locust.

My knees are weak from fasting and my flesh is lean and

does not have any fat. And I must have become a disgrace for

them; when they saw me, they shook their heads. Show me aid,

my lord god, and help me according to thy mercy.

So that they may know that this is thy hand, and that thou,

lord, acted thusly. They may curse, but thou wilt bless; if they

should rise against me, then have them come to shame, but thy

servant rejoice.

May my enemies be at the same time clothed in disgrace,

and may they cover themselves with shame as with a kirtle.

Greatly, I want to thank the lord with my mouth and to praise

him among the crowd.

Because he will stand at the right hand of the poor man,

so that he might deliver him from those who want to pass judg-

ment on his life - 29

THE GALDRABdK

25. A washing verse

I wash myself in the dew and in thy day-bath , 30 and in the

brightness of thy fire, my lord. I wash away all the power of my

enemies, and the wrath of mighty men and of all those who have

evil intentions toward me . 31 May wrath run away and may strife

be stemmed, so that they will greet me gladly and may they

laughingly look into my eyes, and the greatest good deeds will

be on my tongue.

May god behold me, and may good men, as well as every

other man, behold me with eyes that bring nothing but bless-

ings — it is the helm of awe 32 that I bear between my brows —

may the world and the land be gracious to me. May my enemies

become as delighted with me as much as the child who takes

milk from its mother’s breast, and just as the Saint Maria was

delighted with her son when she sought him for three days and

found him in the minster among his teachers . 33

May their wrath run away and their strife be stemmed, may

their breasts cool down and may the bottoms [of their hearts] be

thawed before the might and craft of the mighty shaper — Jhesu

Christi. May their wrath run away from me just as the sun runs

down into the sea, may god release their wrath and hate from

me as he released Susanna from her long disgrace and Daniel

from the pit of fierce beasts, Moses from the power of the pagan

people. Read this while you wash yourself and look three times

into the bowl of your hands . 34

26. For the wrath of mighty men

I wash all of my enemies away, and the power and wrath ol

mighty men, so that they will greet me with good cheer and loo!

upon me with laughing eyes. My eyes project love and I car

settle disputes of life, I can settle cases concerning the mightiesl

of men. God will behold me, every man will gaze upon me witf

The Galdrabdk

eyes that bring good fortune — I bear the helm of awe between

my brows — may the world and land be gracious as friends.

Read this three times down into the bowl of your hands

while having water in your hands, and also read a Pater Nostet

each time.

27. To play a joke on someone, so that he cannot hold his

food down the whole day long

Carve these staves into cheese or fish and have whoever you

want to make fun of eat it, and whatever he eats that day will

be of no use to him. 35

28. An antidote for the previous enchantment

If he does not get any better by himself, then give him warm

milk, with bleached and dried albumin scraped off into it; this

can also be done against cholera and it won’t go wrong.

29. To hinder a person from coming to your house

If you don’t want a man to come to your dwelling, then carve

this stave into rowan wood 36 when the sun is in her highest stead,

and go three times with the sun [riett saelis) and three times

widdershins [ranga-sselis] around your farm and hold onto the

wand of rowan wood onto which the stave has been carved, and

THE GALDRAB6K

onto some sharp thorn grass [thistle ] 37 and then lay both of them

together up over your door.

30. To kill another’s animal

One should inscribe these staves onto a leaf and cast it into the

footprint of another’s horse; then the animal will die, if he has

offended you without cause. Conceal the stave in the horse’s

hoofprint.

31. Against troll-shot 38

If any kind of shot flies toward you, then read this verse right

away: BUMEN SITTIMUS CALECTIMUS ME TASUS ELI

ELOI SIEBAHOT ELEM VE A O NAJ

The Galdrabok

32. To put someone to sleep

If you want to put someone to sleep, then carve these staves in

alder wood 39 and lay it under his head, and he will surely sleep

until you take it away.

33. To find out a thief

In case of theft you should carve these staves on the bottom of

a dish of ash wood, put water in it, and strew millefolium 40 into

the water [and say]; “This I ask according to the nature of the

herb and great might of the staves, that the shade [skuggi] 41 of

the one who has taken it appear in the water, and that the name

of this person be carved on a fish gill with etin’s bewilderments

[iotun villum], 42 and carry these on yourself [and say]: Odhinn,

Loki, Fro, Baldur, Njordhr, Tyr, Birgur, Hcenir, Freyja, Gefjon,

Gusta, and all those gods and goddesses who dwell and have

THE GALDRAB6K

dwelt in Valholl from the beginnings of heaven, they must help

me so that I will have success in this matter.

34- To bewitch a woman and win her love

If you want to bewitch a woman so she will come to no one

except you, make a hole in the floor in a place where she will

go over it, and pour in some etin-spear blood [iotun geira bhd] e

and draw a ring of water around it, as well as her name and these

staves: and threefold diving 44 Molldthurs* 45 and Modhr-runes,

bladh, naudh, komla, and gapalldur 46 and then read this conjura-

tion: 47

I look upon thee and thou givest me the lust and love o!

all thy heart [hugur]. Thou canst nowhere sit, thou canst bt

nowhere at home, unless thou lovest me. This I bid of Odhinr

and of all those who can read 48 “women- runes”: 49 that thou wilt

nowhere in the world be at home nor thrive, unless thou lovesi

me with all thy heart. This shalt thou feel in thy bones as i:

The Galdrabok

thou bumest all over, and in thy flesh half as badly. Thou wilt

meet with ruin unless thou lovest me — thou shalt freeze on thy

feet and thou wilt never meet with honor or happiness. Sittest

thou as if burning, with thy hair rotting out; rent are thy

clothes — unless thou wilt have me of thine own free will.

35. To find out a thief

Carve these on a man’s leg bone and then he will come and spit

out whosoever stole from you:

36. To find a thief

Carve these on an oak twig 50 and lay it under the turf over a

grave and let it lie there:

THE GALDRABOK

37. A way to get satisfaction in a legal case

If you want to have fulfillment in a legal case, read this verse

three times forward and three times backward: VIENIAT MICHI

MYSERACIONIS TVE VIVAM QUIA LEX TUA MEDI

TASIO MEA EST 51

Backward: EST MEA TASIO MED! TUA LEX QUIA

VIVAM TUE MISERACIONIS MICHI VIENIAT.

38. For the protection of your horse

Read this verse over your horse when you come to unsafe places;

then no harm will come to it: COGNOVI DOMINE CUIA

ECUITAS JUDIJSIA TUA ET IN VIRI TATES TUE HUME

HASTE MIE . 52

39. Against trolhshot

If any kind of shot comes flying toward you, read this verse at

once: BUMEN SITTIMUS CALECTIMUS ME TASUS ELI

ELOE SIEBAHAT ELEM VEAO NAJ *

40. To find out a thief

Against theft take Frigg’s grass 54 and lay it in water so that it

might lie there for three nights at a stretch; then go back there

and you will be able to see the one who stole from you.

The Galdrabdk

41- Against wrath

To still all kinds of wrath make this stave on your forehead with

your left index finger, and say: It is the helm of awe that I bear

between my eyes — wrath runs away, strife is stemmed. May every

mother be delighted with me as Maria was delighted with her

blessed son when she found him on the rock of victory, 55 in the

name of the Father and the Son, and the Hoiy Spirit:

And read:

01vir, Odhinn, Evil One 56

All will you bewitch!

May God himself, with skill

Send love between us two! 57

42. Against hate

If anyone harbors hate against you, sign yourself 58 at once with

these words:

Trepa y- tetra^T :

Grammaton +:

Alpha + Et +: O +

Ageos + : agios +

otheos + : adonaij

43. To make a woman keep quiet

If you do not want [a woman] to tell about what you did [with

her?], then take this stave, Homa, 59 and put it in her drink, and

THE GALDRABOk

then she will not be able to come out with anything. And you

should have this stave next to your breast.

And say: Help in this all ye gods; Thorr, Odhinn, Frigg, Freia,

Satan, Beelzebub, and all those gods and goddesses that dwell

in Valholl.

In thy mightiest name, Odhinn!

44. To find out a thief

If you want to learn, through magical knowledge, who stole from

you, then take a little thorn bush 60 and wear it so that you are

never separated from it. Then take a little copper pin, together

with a copper hammer. Then make the following stave on the

cross-beam of the house from which the thing was stolen; then

stick the pin in the right eye , 61 and say at the same time: IN

BUSKAN LUCANUS

the stave

And say: FORTUM ATUM EST.

The Galdrabok

Write this stave on the cross-beam with chalk, and the hammer

shall be cast by the shaft when the sun is the strongest , 62 and

that [should] be [made of] material which has never been used,

unstamped copper or brass . 63

45. Another way to uncover a thief

If anyone wants another way to learn who stole from him, then

he should make this stave on the bottom of a bowl with a wooden-

handled knife. Make the blood flow from under your big toe and

from your right hand, and drip the blood around the stave. Then

take pure water, with millefolium, which is spread out on it. The

water should be taken midsummer night after midnight, and should

be taken with gloves, so that none of it gets on the hands. The

wort should be smeared with blood, as well as these three staves:

And then ask on account of the gloriously great might of

the herb and the never-ending working of its power, that the

gods will send as a help, Rafael, their mightiest servant, and he

will show himself here in they mightiest name, Thorr, Frigg,

Beelzebub, Odhinn.

Read three Our Fathers afterward.

46. Fart runes

Write these staves on white calfskin with your own blood; take

the blood from your thigh and say: I write you eight dss-runes,

THE GALDRABOK

nine rtaudfi-runes, thirteen thurs-runes 64 — that will plague thy

belly with bad shit and gas, and all of these will plague thy belly

with great farting. May it loosen thee from thy place and burst

thy guts; may thy farting never stop, neither day or night; thou

wilt be as weak as the fiend Loki, who was bound by all the gods:

in thy mightiest name Lord, God, Spirit, 65 Shaper, 6dhinn,

Thorr, Saviour, Frey, Freyja, Oper, Satan, Beelzebub, helpers,

mighty god, warding with the companions of Oteos, Mors,

Notke, Vitales.

V _ H r>;c )-

4 *

47. How one can get the helm of hiding

If you want to make a helm of hiding, 66 then get a hen’s egg,

and pour blood from under your big toe on your left foot onto

it. Then the egg goes back under the bird, and let it sit upon

it. Afterward, take the chick and bum it on oak-wood. Then

put the burned chick in a linen sack and wear it on your head.

SPELLS IN

GERMANIC

MAGIC

Other Icelandic Sources

From the Huld Manuscript

T he Huld Manuscript was collected by Geir Vigfusson of

Akureyri, who died in 1880. The material contained in

these spells is, however, much older, as can be seen when

compared to the contents of the Galdrabok. As presented here,

each of the galdrastafir or galdramyndir is named, and the instruc-

tions for making it are given, occasionally along with its effects.

1. Galdraholl (hall of magical incantations):

Carve on the skin of the water-rail. (Runes read Araton Helga

THE GALDRABOK

2. A galdratoluskip (ship of magical numbers):

To min ships. (Signs named Gtnnir and Gapi, cf. Angurgapi.)

3. Kaupaloki (deal-closer?):

Cut this sign on a stave of beechwood and wear it in the middle

of your breast when you want to have success [victory] at buying

and selling.

4. Another kaupaloki:

Cut on a piece of beechwood and you will have success.

Appendix A

5. Brynslustafir (whet sign):

Carve the upper sign on your whetstone, the other one belov

then lay a bit of grass over it; then whet under the sun and don

look at the edge.

t £ "

✓

\ /

* /

6. Draumstafur (dream stave):

Carve this sign on fir wood and sleep upon it; then you wil

dream what you want.

THE GALDRABOK

7. Draumstafur:

Carve this sign on so-called man-killing oak (manndrepseik) and

lay it under the head of the one who should, according to your

will, receive dreams, without him knowing it.

8. Draumstafur:

Carve this sign on St. John’s Night on silver or on white leather,

and if anyone sleeps on it, he will dream what he wants when

the sun is at the deepest.

9. Svefnthom (sleep thorn):

This sign would be carved on oak and laid under the head of

the one who is supposed to sleep so that he can not awaken until

it is taken away.

Appendix A

10. Lukkustafir (luck staves):

Whoever carries these signs with him will meet no bad luck,

neither on sea nor on land.

11. Solomon's innsigli:

This one is carried for protection.

12. Rodhukross (crucifix):

Insignia of St. Olafur, which one carries for protection.

THE GAL DRABdK

13. Vegvisir (signpost):

If this sign is carried, one will never lose one's way in storms o:

bad weather, even when the way is not known.

14- Herzlustafir (strengthening staves):

Wear this on your left breast to strengthen your courage.

^ r

I L

15. Ot tastafur (terror stave):

Carve these signs on a small oak plate and throw it at the feet

of your foe to frighten him. 67

Appendix A

16. Dreprun (killing rune):

If you want your foe to lose his livestock and possessions, ther

lay this sign in the hoofprint of his horse. 68

17. Feingur (catch or booty?): 69

If you want a girl to become pregnant by you, cut this sij~

piece of cheese and give it to her to eat.

18. Ldsabrjotur (lock breaker):

Lay this sign on the lock and blow into it. [The runes read

T roll oil taki i mellu, taki \ djdfu[ll] so braki, which translates: A1

THE GALDRABOK

trolls reach into the lock, the Devil reach into it, so that it will

break.]

lari i 4+BM/r

19. Th&rshamar:

This sign is used by magicians to call out thieves and other

witcheries. 70

20. Thjofastafur (thief’s stave):

Put this sign under the threshhold of your enemy and he will

collapse when he steps over it if he has committed an act of

thievery against you.

Appendix A

21. Thjofastafur:

If you want someone to steal, then carve this sign on the bottom

of the [wooden] plate that he eats from.

22. Thjofastafir:

To see a thief, carve these signs in so-called man-killing oak and

have it under your arm. 71

23. Thjofastafir:

Carve these signs in maple [valbjork] wood and lay them under

your head, and you will see the thief in your sleep. 72

bb mt

THE GALDjRABOK

24. Thjofastafur:

This sign is to be carved at the full moon at high tide on the

inside and outside of the bottom of a washbasin . 73

From the Kreddur Manuscript

This manuscript, found in Eyjafjodhur, was written or copied in

the late nineteenth century, but linguistic evidence shows it to

be copied from a seventeenth-century original.

1 . Have this sign on gray paper under your left arm

when you are talking to somebody.

Appendix A

2. To have victory in business with all people:

Draw this sign on blotting paper and wear it under your left arm

and let no one know that you have it.

3 . When you carry these staves with you, you will surely

overcome your foes.

4. Dunfaxi:

If you want to win a law case, carry this sign with you if you

believe in it. It is called dun faxi [the manuscript is defective

here] before you go to where the trial is to be held. It should be

on a piece of new oak.

THE GALDRAB6K

5. So that you will not die in the water:

Wear this sign under your left arm.

6. Against sleeplessness and bad dreams:

Carve this sign with a magnetized iron on a piece of coal.

TTt f °

7. For the bite [of a fox]:

Carve these signs on oak and put them over the house doo

Appendix A

8. Carry this sign with you ; it protects from all sorcery . 74

9 . Have this sign in your right hand against all fear of

witchery.

1 0. Have this sign in calfskin in front of your breast if you

want to send back to him that which he has sent to you

[i. e. , any harmful sending].

THE GALDRABOK

1 1. So that you won’t get any shame, whatever comes up

against you, make this sign with the ring finger of your right

hand with spittle on your forehead.

12. Against foreboding when you go into the darkness:

Carve this sign on the rice-oak [Ice. hnseilc?] and wear it unde

your left arm.

13. To put someone in a bad mood:

Carve this sign on lead and stick it in the person’s clothes at th<

small of the back.

Appendix A

14. To discover a thief:

Cut one of these signs on a bronze plate and have under it the

hair of a black uncastrated tomcat and have it under your head

on the three nights of the old moon until the thief appears to

15. To discover a thief:

Draw blood from above the nail of your left middle finger and

therewith draw this sign on paper. Have a cat hair behind it.

Stick it under your cap and sleep with it by the old moon until

you dream of him. Tried out.

16. If you want to get a good and true friend:

Have two silver rings made and leave them lying for nine nights

in the nest of a water wagtail or a sparrow [titlingur: anthus pratensis

or plectrophanes nivalis]. Then take one ring and wear it and give

the other one to your friend and say in jest to him that this is

your ring of friendship and that you wish that it never part from

THE GALD RABdK

him. Take care, however, that he does not find out about thi

procedure with the rings. One must work in a similar way to ge

the love of a good woman.

17. To discover a thief:

Take friggjargras [an orchid, habonaria hyperborea], let it lie fc

three nights in water, and lay it under your head when you ar

sleeping; then you will see him.

18. To make a helm of hiding [Ice. hulinshjdlmur]:

Get a completely black dog that has not one white hair; kill i

and take out its heart. Take a piece of spruce wood and split i

at the end and stick the heart in the split and bury it in th

earth where the field and unfertilized land come together, an

let it lie there for the nine nights before St. John’s Day. Ther

will have been created a stone there in that place. Carry it wit!

you.

19. So that a woman will love a man very much:

Give her finely chopped dove heart in her food or in her drink

Or have the tongue of a water wagtail under the root of you

tongue, and the one whom you kiss first will love you above a!

others. Or take two gold or silver rings and lay them in th

nest of a water wagtail or a sparrow [Ice. titlingur] so that the

are there for nine nights. Take them out again and give he

one of them and keep the other one yourself. Then she wil

love you.

20. If someone wishes to still the anger of his foe:

He should go to some water and before a raven flies over it h

should hold his hands in the water and make the following rune

Appendix A

on his forehead with the fourth finger of the right hand an

afterward not wash himself off:

m midm k h km

From Svend Grundtvig’s Collection

This collection was made in the middle of the nineteenth cen

tury. It is now in the Royal Collection in Copenhagen. Then

are four recorded signs from this collection, all very complex ant

of an obviously late date. Here we give one example:

Astros: The protective sign that comes now is called Astros. I

protects from all runes and carvings of all sorts that can be used

According to Snorri . 75

From the Collection of Jon Arnason

Amason published a great collection of Icelandic folktales ir

the nineteenth century that contained many bits and pieces

100

THE GALDRABOK

of magical lore. The following are three of the most inter

esting:

I . The use of two magical signs named gapaldur and ginfaxi

can be used in glimagaldur (ivrestling magic).

The gapaldur is placed under the heel of the right foot and th

ginfaxi is placed under the toe of the left. Then a verse is to b

spoken, for which four variants are given. They all begin

Gapaldur under my heel

ginfaxi under my toe,

and conclude;

stand by me, fiend

now lying upon me! (i.e., possessing me]

stand by me, my ogre! [Ice. skratti]

strengthen me now, Adversary! [Ice. andskoti]

Devil, support me! 76

2. There is a simple helm of awe working:

Make a helm of awe in lead, press the lead sign between th

eyebrows, and speak the formula:

Aegishjdlm er eg her I bear the helm of awe

milli bruna mer! between my brows!

Thus a man could meet his enemies and be sure of victory.

3. A washing stave:

Fjon thveer eg af mer I wash the hate from me

panda minna, of my foes,

rann og reidhi and the robbery and wrath

rikra manna! of rich [powerful] men!

Appendix A

10 ]

One other intresting and detailed set of instructions for usin£

the Thorr's hammer is given by Amason and has been translatec

by Jacqueline Simpson. 77

From Various Manuscripts Collected by

Oldfur Davidhsson

A few other manuscripts were used in Davidhsson ’s collection

published in 1903. Three involve magical signs, and four are

kreddur instructions.

1 . Brynslustafir (whet sign):

Carve on a whetstone with steel.

■n

1°

2 . Sdttgjafar (reconciler):

If someone else hates you, write these signs on parchment and

put them under his head without his knowing it.

102

THE GAI.DRABOK

3. Vamastafur Vladimars (Waldemar’s protective stave):

It increases popularity and luck for everyone who can work it.

It came here from Germany and is therefore the best of these

ancient signs. It should not be carved or written on anything

except when someone is being tormented by something evil, and

then it should be written with fish guts on the skin of a hen’s

egg and put in the headdress of" the person.

sal

mSm

0A;

■■■■■

MBij

mjm\

Immm

4. For u ghost spots” (Ice. draugablettir):

If a ghost that has been sent to attack someone 78 is successful in

touching him, then its fingers will leave behind black spots, The}

will become sores that will eat away at the person and eventuall}

kill him if nothing is done to stop them. The means to use

against this is explained here: One should draw around the spots

with an edhalstdl or segulstdl [i.e., a steel magnet] and sing the

Pater Noster three times; then they will not spread out an}

farther. Then one should go to lukewarm water prepared foi

washing and hold the spots in it. Then hack three, six, or nine

wounds in it and pour the lukewarm water over it. If all this is

done right, it will be enough.

Appendix A

103

5. To bring forth deceptions of the eye 79

and to know how to do them:

Take eagle claws, sparrow claws, raven claws, falcon claw, dog

paw, cat paw, mouse paw, and fox paw. Take the claws and paws

of all these animals and boil them in water that [was drawn from

a stream that] flows to the eait. Then take the substance and

put it in an unused linen bag and drink the extract. Then hold

the bag over your head and command what kind of deception

of the eyes you have thought up for him.

6 . Sleep thorn:

Take the heart sac [pericardium] of a dog; pour pickling broth

into it. Then dry it for thirteen days long, in a place where the

sun does not shine on it, and when the one to whom you wish

to do this is asleep, hang this in the house over him completely

without his knowing it.

7 . Take the needle with which one has sewn

a dead man into his shroud:

Stick it from underneath into the table at which the people eat

and, if they know nothing of your actions, they will not be able

to get their food down — even if it has been very well prepared —

until the needle is taken away.

Heathen Magic

in Old English Manuscripts

A n excellent collection of magical spells from many Old

English manuscripts has been provided by G. Storms

in his Anglo-Saxon Magic. 80 The two main manuscripts

that, contain magical charms are the so-called Leechbook (MS

Regius 12 D XVII, from the mid-tenth century) and the Lacnunga

(MS Harley 585, from the eleventh century). Both of these texts

are primarily filled with medical charms, and much of what they

contain is directly translated from Greek or Latin source works.

The Lacnunga, especially, contains a good deal of basically Ger-

manic magical practice.

There are some twenty or so other manuscripts in which

Old English magical spells have been found. Because of the vast

foreign influence present in these manuscripts, explicit reference

to the Germanic heathen pantheon is rare. Here we present as

an example of Old English magical procedure what is perhaps

the most interesting spell from a comparative point of view —

the Nine Wort Spell 81 for snakebite from the Lacnunga:

Remember thou, mugwort, what thou modest known,

what thou hast adorned at the “Great Proclamation” [Regen-

melde]

THE GALDRABOK

Una thou wast hight — oldest of worts,

thou hast might against three and against thirty,

thou hast might against venom and flying shots,

thou hast might ’gainst the loathsome one that fares through the

land.

And thou, waybread, mother of worts,

open from the east, mighty inside.

Over thee creaked carts, over thee rode queens,

over thee brides sobbed, over thee bulls snorted.

All thou withstoodest and hast rushed against them.

Thus mayest thou withstand venom and flying shots,

and the loathsome one that fares through the land.

“Stune” hight this wort, it waxed on stone,

it stands up. against poison, it strikes against pain.

“Steady” it is hight, it strikes against venom,

it drives out the hostile one, it hurls out venom.

This is the wort, that /ought with the worm,

it has might against venom, and against flying shots,

it is mighty against the loathsome one that fares through the land.

Make fly now, thou, venom-hater, the greater venoms,

thou the greater conquer the lesser venoms so that he is cured of

both.

Remember thou, mayweed, what thou modest known,

what thou sought at Alorford,

so that never a man should lose his life,

after mayweed was made ready for his meat.

This is that wort hight ‘ ‘wergulu. ’ ’

It was sent by a seal across the sea-ridge,

a vexing to venom, a boon to others.

Appendix B

It stands against pain and strikes against poison,

it has might against three and thirty,

against the hand of the fiend and against great fear

against the witching of mean wights.

There the apple did it against venom,

so that [ the loathsome serpent ] would not live in the house.

Chervil and fennel, two very mighty worts

were wrought by the wise Lord,

holy in heaven as he did hang;

he set and sent them to the seven worlds

to the wretched and rich, os a help to all.

These nine are mighty against nine venoms.

A worm came slithering, but nothing he stayed.

For Woden took up nine wonderous twigs,

he struck the adder so that it flew into nine pieces.

Now these nine worts have might against nine wonder-wights,

against nine venoms and against nine flying shots

against the red venom, against the wretched venom

against the white venom, against the purple venom,

against the yelbw venom, against the green venom,

against the black venom, against the blue venom,

against the brown venom, against the crimson venom,

against worm-blister, against water 'blister,

against thorn-blister, against thistle-blister,

against ice-blister, against venom-blister.

If any venom comes flying from the east,

or any from the north, or any from the south,

or any from the west over the people.

108

THE GALDRABOK

Krist stood over all sicknesses.

I alone wot a running stream

and the nine adders beware!

May all weeds spring up by their roots,

the seas slip apart, all salt water,

when I blow this venom from /you.

Mugwort, waybread, open from the east, lamb’s cress, venom-

loather, mayweed, nettle, crab-apple, chervil, and fennel , 82 old

soap; work the worts to a powder, mix them with soap and the

juice of an apple. Then work up a paste of water and ashes, take

fennel and boil it with the paste and wash it with a beaten egg

when you put on the salve, both before and after.

Sing this spell three times over each of the worts [herbs]

before you prepare them, and on the apple as well. And sing the

spell into the mouth and into both ears, and on the wound before

you put on the salve.

Heathen Magic

in Old High German Spells

T here is no ancient German collection of spells as there

is for England or Iceland. However, what are perhaps the

most ancient formulas of all surviving Indo-European for-

mulas are preserved in two Old High German spells — the Second

Merseburg Charm from the early tenth century and the Contra

Vermes spell from about the same time.

Correspondences between these charms and two Vedic for-

mulas from India, which are perhaps as much as a millennium

older than the Old High German manuscripts, were first noticed

by A. Kuhn in 1864. 83 Another remarkable historical aspect of

the Second Merseburg Charm is the absolutely transparent way

in which it was Christianized by merely substituting figures from

Christian mythology for the original Germanic ones. The fact

that these Christianized versions appear outside the German re-

gion also points to the probability of lost heathen versions

throughout the Germanic world. The overall historical pattern

demonstrated by this formula also strongly suggests that many,

if not most, of the “Christian” charms first written down in later

centuries actually go back to now lost heathen originals. The

First Merseburg Charm shows close affinities to magical stanzas

110

THE GALDRABOK

in the Poetic Edda — for example, in the “Havamal,” stanza 149

and in the “Grogaldr,” stanza 10, where magic to break fettei

is mentioned.

Contra Vermes

Go out, worm, with nine wormlings,

out of the marrow into the bone, from that bone into the flesh

out from the flesh into the skin, out from that skin into this

arrow . 84

Lord, so will it be!

The Vedic correspondence is from the Rig-Veda, X, 163, whicl

catalogs the various parts of the body from which the disease i

removed in a very similar way. 85

The Merseburg Charms

Once there were sitting lofty ladies 86

sitting here and there

some bound bonds,

some hemmed the warrior bands,

some picked

at the fetters,

so the hasp-bonds break,

and the warriors escape.

Phol 37 and Wodan

were riding in the wood

when the lord's [or Baldr’s] foal

Appendix C

sprained its foot.

Then Sinthgunt enchanted ,

and her sister Sunna;

then Frigga enchanted,

and her sister VoUa;

then enchanted Woden,

as he could so well:

for bone-sprain

as well as joint-sprain;

bone to bone,

blood to blood,

limb to limb,

so that they are linked again!

The Vedic passage corresponding to this is found in the A tharva

Veda IV, 12, from about 500 b.c.e. which can in part be trans

lated: “Let thy marrow come together with marrow, and thy join

together with joint; together let what of thy flesh has fallen apart

together let thy bone grow over.” 88

But the formula also survived in a variety of forms through

out the Germanic world. In these Jesus replaces Woden, perhap

Voll or Balder is replaced by saints, and so on. One of the mos

recent recordings of this ancient formula is from 1842 in Scot

land:

The Lord rode,

and the foal slade;

he lighted,

and he righted,

set joint to joint,

bone to bone,

and sinew to sinew.

Heal in the Holy Ghost’s name/ 89

Introduction

1. Edition by Nat. Lindqvist, En islansk Svartkons tbok fran 1500-

talet (Uppsala; Appelberg, 1921).

2. Icelandic folktales were collected and published by Jon Ar-

nason, Islenzltar Thjddhsogur og /Efintyn, 2d ed. , 6 vols. , ed.

A. Bodhvarsson and B. Viljalmsson (Reykjavik; Thj6dhsaga

Prentsmidhjan Holar, 1954-1961). Amason’s edition was

first published in 1863-1864- Convenient translations of

some of these tales are provided by Jacqueline Simpson in

two books, Icelandic Folktales and Legends (Berkeley; Uni'

versity of California Press, 1972) and Legends of Icelandic

Magicians (Cambridge: Brewer, 1975).

Chapter 1

1. For a survey of the legal system in Iceland, see Gwyn Jones,

A History of the Vikings (London: Oxford University Press,

1973), p. 282ff.

2. The best survey of Northern religion and mythology avail-

114

THE GALDRABdK

able in English is that of E. O. G. Turville-Petre, Myth and

Religion of the North (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Win-

ston, 1964). However, the most comprehensive is that oi

Jan de Vries, Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed., 2

vols. (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1956-1957).

3. Probably the most convenient history of Iceland is that oi

Knut Gjerset, History of Iceland (New York: Macmillan,

1924).

4. An excellent history of Icelandic literature is given by Stefan

Einarsson, A History of Icelandic Literature (New York: Johns

Hopkins Press, 1957).

Chapter 2

1. See Einarsson, A History of Icelandic Literature, p. 122ff.

2. Several surveys of magic in the Icelandic sagas exist, but

unfortunately, none is in English. Perhaps the best recent

treatment in English is that of H. R. Ellis Davidson, “Hostile

Magic in the Icelandic Sagas,” in The Witch Figure, ed. V.

Newell (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973), pp. 20-

41.

3. This term is virtually universally used in the Germanic di-

alects for “magic,” for example, in Old English gealdor and

in Old High German galstar.

4. This is the sound a raven is said to make.

5. No clear etymology of seidh(r) has been developed, and it

may indeed be a borrowing from some foreign terminology.

6. Seidhr has been compared to shamanism by Dag Stromback,

Sejd (Stockholm: Geber, 1935).

7. Snorri Struluson, Heimskringla, trans. Lee M. Hollandei

(Austin: University of Texas Press), pp. 8, 11.

8. The only comprehensive study of academic runology in En-

Notes for Part 1

115

glish is that of Ralph Elliott, Runes; An Introduction (Man-

chester: Manchester University Press, 1959). A more

imaginative approach is that of Edred Thorsson, Runelore

(York Beach, ME: Samuel Weiser, 1987). Records of runes

being used in the nineteenth century are found in Wolfgang

Krause’s work, Runen (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1970), pp. 122—

123.

9. A complete, if old, edition and translation of the major rune

poems is provided by Bruce Dickens, Runic and Heroic Poems

of the Old Teutonic Peoples (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-

sity Press, 1915); see also Thorsson, Runelore, pp. 93-104.

10. For convenient interpretations of the god Odhinn, see Tur-

ville-Petre, Myth and Religion of the North, pp. 35-74, and

Georges Dumezil, Gods of the Ancient Northmen, ed. Einar

Haugen (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973),

pp. 27-42. For a more imaginative look, see Thorsson, Rune-

lore, pp. 178-182, 189-199.

11. For an academic treatment of this magical process, see Ste-

phen E. Flowers, Runes and Magic (New York: Lang, 1986),

pp. 153-166.

12. See also the translation of Lee M. Hollander in The Poetic

Edda, 2d ed. (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1962),

p. 72.

13 . See also the translation of Hermann Poisson and Paul Ed-

wards, Egil’s Saga (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1976),

P- ioi.

14. The most famous depiction in the sagas of the blood being

sprinkled in the temple is found in the Eyrbyggja Saga, chap.

4. See the translation of Hermann Pdlsson and Paul Edwards

(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1973), p. 40.

15. See Flowers, Runes and Magic, p. 249ff.

16. See Simpson, Legends of Icelandic Magicians, p. 33ff.

17. See Gjerset, History of Iceland, pp. 270-272.

116

THE GALDRABOK

18. See Simpson, Legends of Icelandic Magicians, pp. 37-44.

19. See Simpson, Legends of Icelandic Magicians, p. 56.

20. See Simpson, Legends of Icelandic Magicians, pp. 73-79.

21. For statistics on Icelandic witchcraft trials, see Ql&fur Da-

vidhsson, “Islandische Zauberzeichen und Zauberbiicher, ”

Zeitschrift des Vereins fur Volkskunde 13 (1903): 150-151.

22. For a popular view of modern Icelandic attitudes toward

occult phenomena, see Erlendur Haraldsson, “Are We Sen-

sitive or Superstititious?” Atlantica and Icelandic Review 17:4

(1972), 30-34.

23. The most dramatic aspect of this is the official revival of the

Norse religion in Iceland by Sveinbjorn Beinteinsson, who

is the leader of what are called the Asatruarmenn — those

who believe in the Aisir.

Chapter 3

1. See Simpson, Legends of Icelandic Magicians, p. 19.

2. See Davidhsson, “Islandische Zauberzeichen,” p. 157.

3. See Simpson, Legends of Icelandic Magicians, pp. 73-79.

4. See Davidhsson, “Islandische Zauberzeichen,” pp. 157-158.

5. For a survey of the history of the manuscript, see Nat. Lind-

quist, En islansk Svartkonstbok, pp. 21-23.

6. See Davidhsson, “Islandische Zauberzeichen,” pp. 160-167.

7. See Figure 2 on page 49.

8. This is certainly a forced interpretation.

9. See Davidhsson, “Islandische Zauberzeichen,” pp. 267-270.

10. An edition of this book was done by Kristian K&lund, Den

islandske laegebog (Copenhagen: Luno, 1907).

11. See Irmgard Hampp, B eschwdrungSegen'Gebet (Stuttgart;

Silberburg, 1961), p. 11 Off.

Notes for Par t l

Chapter 4

1. Hampp, Beschworung-Segen-Gebet, p. 11 Off.

2. The classic text on this topic is by Erich Jung, Germanisch

Gotter und Helden in christlicher Zeit, 2d ed. (Munich: Leh

mann, 1939).

3. See Amason, lslenzkar Thjddhsdgur, vol. 1, p. 432.

4. See Hjalmar Falk, Odensheite (Kristiana: Dybwad, 1924)

pp. 8, 9, 29, 31.

5. Details of this were given by Amason, lslenzkar Thjddhsdgur

vol. 1 , pp. 431-432, conveniently translated by Simpsor

in Icelandic Folktales, pp. 181-182.

6. See also H. R. Ellis Davidson, Gods and Myths of Northerr

Europe (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1964), p. 180.

7. See Lee R. Gandee, Strange Experience (Englewood Cliffs,

NJ: Prentice' Hall, 1971), p. 119.

8. A full account of this myth is given by Snorri Sturluson ir

The Prose Edda, trans. Jean I. Young (Berkeley: University

of California Press, 1954), pp. 85-86.

9. For the original Old High German of this text, see Wilhelm

Braune and Ernst Ebbinghaus, Althochdeutsches Lesebuch,

15th ed. (Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1969), p. 39.

Chapter 5

1. In this set of definitions I am generally following those

given by Davidhsson, “IslandischeZauberzeichen,”pp. 152—

154.

2. See the prose following st. 14 in the “Reginsmal” and st.

16 and following in the “Fafnismal” in the Poetic Edda (trans.

Lee M. Hollander) and in the Prose Edda (trans. Jean I.

Young), p. 112. It is specifically mentioned that Sigurdhr

118

THE GAUMABOK

takes the helm in chap. 19 of the Volsunga Saga; see th

translation of William Morris and Hirikur Magnusson (Ne\

York: Collier, 1962), p. 148. There are several editions o

the Morris and Magnusson translation, as well as many othe

translations.

3. See, for example, the prose following st. 4 in the “Sigridri

fumai” in the Poetic Edda, trans. Lee M. Hollander, p. 234

4. The sator-square has been much written about. For its origin

and history, see the fairly recent study by Walter O. Moeller

The Mithraic Origin and Meanings of the Rotas-Sator Squar

(Leiden: Brill, 1973).

5. See H. Gustavson and T. S. Brink, “Runfynd 1978,” Fom

vannen (1979): 233ff.

Chapter 6

1. A variety of Judeo-Christian grimoires have been publishec

or republished in recent years. Among the best known o

these are The Book of the Sacred Magic of Abra-Melin tk

Mage, trans. S. L. MacGregor Mathers (Chicago: de Lau

rence, 1932); The Greater Key of Solomon, trans. S. L

MacGregor Mathers (Chicago: de Laurence, 1914); Th<

Book of the Goetia of Solomon the King, trans. S. L. MacGrego

Mathers, ed. Aleister Crowley (New York: Ram, 1970).

2. For some interesting insights on the power of the name ir

Norse magical thinking, see H. R. Ellis (Davidson), Thi

Road to Hel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1943)

pp. 137-148.

3. See “Fafnismal” prose following st. 1 in the Poetic Edda

trans. Lee M. Hollander, p. 223. A whole study has beer

devoted to the magical power of the speech of the dyinj

Notes for Part 1

man: Foike Strom, Den doendes makt och Odin i tradet (Gc

teborg: Elander, 1947).

4. Probably the most comprehensive treatment of the Nors

conception of the soul readily available in English is H. R

Ellis (Davidson), The Road to Hel, pp. 121ff. For a mor

imaginative view, see Thorsson, Runelore, pp. 167-173.

L This list of divine names perhaps represents an encoded

message of some sort. The numbers of names in each of the

three lists seem significant. The latter two consist of twenty-

four and twelve names, respectively; the first one is probably

supposed to contain seventy- two.

2. The use of magic in helping women in childbirth goes back

into the Eddie tradition; for example, we find it in the

“Sigrdifum&l,” st. 10: “Also learn help-runes / if you wish

to help / a woman bring forth her baby.” The term used in

this context is ON bjargrunar (help [in bearing children]

runes).

3. To be able to stanch blood was a popular healing art in old

Germanic times. It is well known in the Lacnunga and other

Old English leechbooks.

4. These last two words are obvious misspellings or alterations

of the name Jehova Sebaoth (Yahweh Tzabaoth), the ancient

Hebrew war god.

5. The helm of awe (ON azgishjdlm r) is the most interesting

single feature of this manuscript. Both the word and its

underlying meanings are intriguing. It occurs four times in

122

THE GALDRABOK

the Poetic Edda, all in connection with Fafnir, the etin-

serpent guarding the Nfflung hoard. With the power of this

helm he could strike terror into the heart of anyone who

might attempt to win the treasure. It is said that Sigurdhr

took it with him as a part of the hoard after he killed the

serpent. Here it seems to have been symbolized as an actual

helmet; however, it originally meant simply “covering,”

which is the oldest sense of the term “helm.” Therefore,

the whole formula would signify a “covering of awe or ter-

ror.” The first part of the word, asgis- (possessive form from

aegir, “terror”) is derived from Proto-Indo-European * agh-es -

> Proto-Germanic ’egi's- > Gothic aigis > Old English egesa

and ege (hence, our modem “awe”), and > ON agi, all

meaning terror. The spelling aegir is explicable as an ablaut,

"agir >*ogir >*sgir (in later Proto-Germanic). This helm of

awe was originally a kind of sphere of magical power to strike

fear into the enemy. It was associated with the power of

serpents to paralyze their prey before striking (hence, the

connection with Fafnir). In our time this meaning is again

clear. The helm of awe as described in the manuscript is a

power, centered in the pineal gland and emanating from it

and the eyes. It is symbolized by a crosslike configuration,

which in its simplest form is made up of what appear to be

either four younger M-runes or older Z-runes. These figures

can, however, become very complex.

6. This manuscript is valuable for the hints it gives concerning

the Scandinavian lore of trees and their magical correspon-

dences. The oak has been associated with the power of the

ihurs-rune ( ^ ) and with the god Thorr. Here it seems

to be acting as a terrifying apotropaic talisman.

7. This seemingly macaronic verse has not yet been satisfac-

torily interpreted.

8. Neither has the second line, but it has been said to contain

a mnemonic device for the Danish runic alphabet.

Notes for Part 2

123

9. The last two words here represent the Gnostic/Kabbalistic

formula Tetragrammaton, the four-letter name of the He-

brew god (YHVH), also found in Spell 42.

10. This series of staves, which contains none that are obviously

rune staves, nevertheless seems to be an expression of the

system of the younger runes, since it contains the numerical

formula 2 x 16 = 32.

11. In the medical theories of the ancient Germanic peoples,

diseases were sometimes thought to be caused by tiny, in-

visible “worms” (serpents) in the food or drink.

12. These staves are sixteen in number, plus the solar cross,

again an expression of the continuing potency of the number

system of the younger futhark. The first stave is perhaps the

elder J-rune, which continued to be used as a galdrastafur;

the tenth stave appears to be a younger A-rune ( ),

which was perhaps intended as a : 4s : ; and the row ends

with two elder H-runes.

13. Here eight staves are represented, which could be part of

either a sixteen- or a twenty-four-based system. The twenty-

four-based system continued to be used in the contruction

of magical fomulas in the younger period.

14. Again the number 8 could be the key to this stave (number

of staves radiating from the ring). The shape of the staves

could be intended as tfiurs-runes ( \> ), and/or the whole

could be a runic code: 3:5 (read: third aett, fifth stave) —

either: R ;(in the special cryptic reordering) or » 4\; in the

normal order. For a convenient discussion of runic codes,

see Edred Thorsson, Runelore, pp. 87-91.

15. This row of twenty-four staves contains many recognizable

rune staves, for example, ft * > ‘f (stylized M-runes),

(later “dotted” T-rune [d or dh] ) , (S-rune), R (R-rune),

(H-rune), /K (A-rune), j4 (older H-rune).

16. These eleven staves also contain several runic forms found

in Spell 18, plus ^ (s), Y (k), 4s (final -R or y).

124

THE GALDRABOK

17. “Thy dew and dales’’ has been interpreted as Christian sym-

bols for the blood and wounds of Jesus. However, this seems

to be a Christianization of older pagan material relevant to

the Earth mysteries.

18. The technique of this “prayer” is pure contagious magic

based on the transference of negative force from the body

to the water, which is washed away.

19. A bymie is a breastplate or battle sark used by Germanic

peoples — here the symbolism is obvious.

20 This formulaic protection from all sides, based on polar op-

posites, is very ancient and probably common to all peoples.

21 . Another of the common old Germanic ideas concerning the

origin of disease and misfortune in people and animals is

that of projectiles shot by either trolls or elves.

22. This is only one of many indications of the wide variety of

traditions synthesized in this manuscript.

23. No further instruction is given in this book to this mysterious

spell.

24- Psalms and other portions of the Bible were often used in

magical rites of all kinds, which is only fitting since many

of the Psalms are actually adaptations of Canaanite mytho-

magical songs. This is from the Icelandic translation of the

Bible made in 1584-

25. The fiend, or enemy, would appear to be Satan, who would

help God prosecute the enemy. The Icelandic word used

here is andskotin (adversary), which is a normal translation

of the Hebrew SaTaN.

26. Ice. synd (sin) originally borrowed from Old English synn

(sin). Most patently Christian terminology comes into Ice-

landic from Old English.

27. Another example of Old English Christian terminology is

provided by “soul” (Ice. sdl < OE s&wel). This term was

originally part of the common Germanic storehouse of psy-

Notes for Part 2

125

chological conceptions, probably with the meaning of

“shadow, shade” in the vocabulary of life and death; how-

ever, it was Christianized at an early date.

28. The word skuggi usually more properly reflects the concrete

idea “shadow,” but it has clearly moved into the field of

meaning of “soul” here.

29. Ice. Uf (life), the living essence of a human being.

30. See also Spell 20; “day bath” (Ice. daglaug) is perhaps a

metaphor for “blood.”

31. Literally, “who have an evil mind [Ice. hugr] toward me.”

The hugr was originally the seat of the intellect and will (see

Odh inn’s raven Huginn, Master of the Mind), but it later

took on more magical connotations and could be sent out

to do deeds for its owner.

32. Here again we see the asgishjdlmur, as it forces all to fear it

and be kind to its possessor.

33. Perhaps this indicates some knowledge of Arian Christian-

ity, the form of Christianity that several Germanic tribes

converted to in the fourth and fifth centuries.

34. Ice. gaupnir, the bowl formed by cupping the hands together.

35. These sixteen staves seem to be all highly stylized runic

symbols arranged in two rows of eight. Their full meaning

has yet to be decoded. It is not hard to see why the gold-

ramen n in possession of this book were in need of spells

against their enemies!

36. Rowan wood has a life-giving power and can control other-

worldly things. It is also used in a contrary sense as a bringer

of death. Tire use here either means that it was intended to

protect the house from evil visitations or that it was meant

negatively as a method of terrifying those who would come

to the house.

37. Here thistle is probably meant. This is an herbal correspon-

dence to the F-rune.

126

THE GALDRAB6K

38. Again we see the use of the concept of something flying

toward a person (a shot) to bring misfortune.

39. Alder is usually associated with fire and wakefulness; it cor-

responds to the S-rune. Here we again see the use of innate

polarity to evoke the opposite effect.

40. The herbological element in this spell is twofold: (1) ash

wood and (2) millefolium (yarrow). Ash is of well-known

properties in Germanic myth and magic. Here it signifies

the ability to make contact with other worlds. Yarrow, which

was either ground up or its flowers made into an essential

oil to be mixed with water, also has tremendous powers for

making contact with “the other side,” the unconscious. Hot

only did the ancient Chinese know of this (see the I Ching

literature), but it was also well known among the Indo-

Europeans as a divinatory tool. In later times it was dedicated

to “the Evil One” (see Spell 41) and was popularly called

the Devil’s Nettle and Bad Man’s Plaything; it was used in

magical rites.

41. Again we see the use of the term skuggi in the sense of

human soul, or shade, and here its use is more obviously a

part of the psychic terminology with references to living

persons — a kind of psychic double.

42. The manuscript term ioturi villurh (standard nominative form

jotna villur) literally means the bewilderments of the etins

(giants) and refers to some as yet unknown formula of murk

staves used by the etins to delude and confuse. Human ma-

gicians can also control such things.

43. Here the manuscript reads iotun geira blod (standard nomi-

native form jotungeira blddh), literally “the blood of etin-

spears.” Jotungeir (etin-gar) is a kenning for a worm and/or

serpent. This forms a magical link with telluric powers.

44. The problematical word used in the manuscript is thrijsteipta,

literally “three-diving” (inversed, or inverted). This occurs

Notes for Part 2

127

also in another Icelandic manuscript where the galdrastafur

appears. See also note 45.

45. The word moldthurs clearly means earth-thurs (-giant),

which perhaps indicates a reversed (i.e., murk) TH-rune ( <|

or"v), which is a powerful cursing sign (see “Sigrdrifumal, ”

st. 36). The mold - could also refer to both the TH- and

M-runes and reinforce the image of the staves connected to

the ground as seen in note 44 and in the staves in Spell 34-

46. The shape of the gapal(l)dur is identified in the galdrastafir

complex. Its name also occurs in other manuscripts. The

word ( gap-aldur ) could mean “the age or eternity of space

(void) . ” The meaning of the primary structure of the stave

is open to speculation, although it is highly suggestive; how-

ever, the lines extending from the main form are perhaps

coded runic references (i.e., on the left side 3:6 = Y and

on the right 3:3/3 = £>:{>).

47. The manuscript uses the term s&ring, and it is glossed in the

margin as exorctsmus. This term is generally used only in

Christian contexts.

48. The word that is translated “read” in the text is Icelandic

rddha, which, in the technical terminology of the runes, has

the deeper meaning of “to interpret, fathom” in the whole

sense.

49. Kvennrunar were originally formulas used to win the love

of women (and were therefore sympathetic to them); they

may have been attached to certain specific runes and rune

staves.

50. Again we see the oak (see Spell 9 and note 6 above). Here

it is used to make contact with the realm of the dead; this

is done not by drawing the dead out of their graves but by

forcing them out through the placement of the oak in their

realm, thus driving the dead to the surface,

51. Altered version of the Vulgate translation of Psalm 119:7.

128

THE GAWRAB6k

52. A version of the Vulgate translation of Psalm 119:75.

53. Same as in Spell 31.

54. The manuscript reads friggiar gras, “the herb of Frigg.” This

has been attached to various types of herbs. One is the orchis

odoratissima, or satyrium slbidium, from which love potions

were brewed. This plant is also known in Icelandic as hj'un-

agras ( herba conjugalis), the herb of marriage. However, it

may be connected to the mandrake.

55. Here the manuscript reads a sigur hellunne, “on the victory

rock.” The significance of this is still unclear. It is perhaps

a heathen reference applied to a Christian context or an

otherwise unknown Hebraic myth that the Icelanders pre-

served from some heretical text.

56. This threefold Wodenic invocation includes the name

Odhinn beside Hie, “the Evil One,” which may have been

an old name for Odhinn since he was called Bolverkr, “Evil-

Worker,” and was called “the father of all evil” in pagan

times. 01vir is interesting. It is our name Oliver and comes

from Proto-Germanic ‘Alamh-az, “the All-Holy One.” This

is similar in meaning to the name Wlhaz (ON Ve), the third

name in the primal threefold Wodenic formulation.

57. In the manuscript this whole verse reads: 0lvir Odenn

IUe II Allt thijtt vilid vijlk II Sialffur Gud med snijlk II Sendi

ockur ast i mylli.

58. The sign of the helm of awe, later the sign of the cross,

59. Probably the name of a magical sign. It is unclear whether

the two staves referred to here correspond to the stave rep-

resented in the manuscript. Homa perhaps refers to an image

of the Iranian tree of life (and the ancient sacred drink

haoma, cognate to the Sanskrit soma). It is certainly possible

that the galdrastafur represented here is a highly stylized

version of such a treelike sign.

60. Probably hawthorn or sloe.

Notes for Part 2

129

61. As represented in the stave.

62. When it stands at the highest point in the sky.

63. Here a new handwriting style begins, a seventeenth-century

cursive hand. The language of the original is in the Danish

dialect.

64. The representations of the galdrastafir do not seem to cor-

respond to the numerical formulas. However, the numerical

formulas contained in the text of the spell are very potent:

8 x 4 ( ? ) = 32=16x2

9x8(10 = 72 = 24 x3

13 x 3 ( > ) = _39 = 13 x 3

143 13 x 11

65. The manuscript reads Ande, “breath, spirit.”

66. The manuscript reads Hulenn hialmur, “a covering of con-

cealment.” See the Middle High German tamkappe, “a cape

[not cap] of concealment,” and tamhiit, “a hide or skin [not

hat!] of concealment,” both of which occur in the Nibeluri'

genlied.

67. If a speculation offered by Prof. Dr. Klaus Dtiwel is correct,

this formula may be the ancestor of one going all the way

back to about 200 c.e., where we find a spearhead with the

runic inscription “ojingar,” which might have become otti

in Icelandic. See Flowers, Runes and Magic, p. 255.

68. Compare this figure to that found in Spell 30 in the Ga!d-

rabok! It is rare, other than with the aegishjdlmur, to find this

close correspondence in different manuscripts.

69. Feingur may be a nickname of Odhinn (miswritten for Fen-

gur?); see Falk, Odensheite, p. 8. Or it may be related to

Icelandic feigur, “bound to die, fey.”

70. This is a most unusual Thor’s hammer! It may be a depiction

of how the hammer is supposed to work.

130

THE GALDRABOK

71. The exact meaning of mandrepeik is unknown.

72. The valbjork, “birch of the slain,” is a kind of birch or maple

tree unknown in Iceland.

73. Bowls are very typical objects on which runes are carved;

see the Galdrabok.

74- The formula may be the Christian IHS: in hoc signum.

75. The invocation of Snorri’s name may refer to Snorri of Hu-

safell or Snorri Sturluson, author of the Prose Edda. This

kind of extremely complex magical sign is very rare in the

corpus of signs in Iceland and is a clear indication of a late

date and foreign origin.

76. The “Devil” (here the Icelandic word djofull, of course bor-

rowed from the Latin/Greek diabolus) is used. It must be

remembered that, especially in the magician’s world view,

the old gods and the demons of the Christian hell had been

unified. Hence, this may ultimately refer to some heathen

deity.

77. See Simpson, Icelandic Folktales and Legends, pp. 181-182.

78. An animated corpse, or draugur, could be magically activated

and sent to do the malevolent will of a sorcerer, in which

case it is referred to as a dandhingur. See Svale Solheim,

“Draug,” Kulturhistorisk Leksikon for Nordisk Middelalder 3

(1958); 298.

79. This kind of magic is known in Icelandic as sjonhverfing,

“sight twisting,” a way of distorting the perceptions and

causing illusions. See Ellis Davidson, “Hostile Magic in the

Icelandic Sagas,” p. 2 Iff.

80. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1948.

81. See Storms, Anglo-Saxon Magic, pp. 186-197.

82. The botanical designations of the nine herbs are (1) mug-

wort, artemisia vulgaris; (2) waybread or plantain, plantago

major; (3) “stune”(?), lamb’s cress, cardamine hirsuta; (4)

venom-loather, cock’s spur grass, panicwn crus G alii; (5)

Notes for Part 2

13]

mayweed, camomile, anthemis cotula; (6) “wergulu”(?), net-

tle, urtica dioica; (7) (crab)-apple, any of several trees of the

genus Pyrus; (8) chervil, anthriscus cerefolium; (9) fennel,

foeniculum vulgare.

83. See A. Kuhn, “Indische und germanische Segenspruche,’

Zeitschrift fur vergleichende Sprachforschung 13 (1864): 49-73,

84. Then the infecting “worm” would be shot away, magically

bound to the arrow.

85. For the parallels to the Vedic tradition, see the passages

translated by H. H. Wilson, Rig-Veda Sanhita (New Delhi:

Cosmo, 1977), vol. 7, pp. 392—393; and by Ralph T. H.

Griffith, The Hymns of the A tharva-Veda, 3d ed. (Varansi,

India: Master Khelari & Sons, 1962), vol. 2, p. 412.

86. Here the Old High German word idisi is used, which may

be related to Old Norse dis, pi. disir, a group of divine

mother-goddesses or protective spirits.

87. Phol is probably an alternative spelling of Vol(l), the mas-

culine counterpart to the fertility goddess Volla (ON by 11a),

sister of Frigga, also mentioned in the text.

88. William Dwight Whitney, Atharva-Veda Samita (Delhi: Mo-

tilal Banarsidass, 1962), vol. 1, pp. 166-168.

89. Other parallels are discussed by Jacob Grimm, Teutonic My*

thology (New York: Dover, 1966), vol. 3, pp. 1231—1233;

Turville-Petre, Myth and Religion of the North, pp. 122-124;

Storms, Anglo*Saxon Magis, pp. 109-113.

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